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501.	McLanahan, Sara S. Garfinkel, Irwin Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne Zhao, Hongxin Johnson, Waldo Rich, Lauren M. Turner, Mark Waller, Maureen Wilson, Melvin
501.	Unwed Fathers and Fragile Families Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, April 1998 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Birth Outcomes; Family Studies; Fathers; Fathers and Children; Fathers, Influence; Fathers, Involvement; Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study; Parental Marital Status Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this paper, we utilize mothers' reports in the NLSY to examine the level and stability of children's involvement with unwed fathers during the first few years after birth. We find surprisingly high levels of involvement and stability of fathers' involvement among these children. Our findings raise a whole host of questions about the characteristics and capabilities of the unwed fathers and the nature of the relationships between the unwed parents that cannot be addressed with the NLSY data. In the second part of the paper we describe a new longitudinal study of unwed parents - Fragile Families - and present a brief description of some of the findings from two pilot studies in Philadelphia and Chicago and from initial data collection in Oakland.
	Bibliography Citation McLanahan, Sara S., Irwin Garfinkel, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Hongxin Zhao, Waldo Johnson, Lauren M. Rich, Mark Turner, Maureen Waller and Melvin Wilson. "Unwed Fathers and Fragile Families." Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, April 1998.

502.	McLennan, Michele Averett, Susan L.
502.	Black and White Women: Differences in College Attendance Does the Rate of Return Matter? Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2001 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC); Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Educational Attainment; Fertility; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this paper, we focus our attention on the college attendance decisions of women by race and specifically whether they respond to the rate of return. Our results suggest that both black and white women increase the probability of college attendance if they are faced with higher rates of return. We provide further evidence that early childbearing reduces the probability of attending college for both white and black women, even after controlling for family and individual background characteristics.
	Bibliography Citation McLennan, Michele and Susan L. Averett. "Black and White Women: Differences in College Attendance Does the Rate of Return Matter?" Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2001.

503.	McNamee, Catherine Amato, Paul R.
503.	Nonresident Father Involvement with Children and Divorced Women’s Likelihood of Remarriage Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Support; Divorce; Fathers, Absence; Remarriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although remarriage is a relatively common transition, we know little about how nonresident fathers affect divorced mothers’ entry into remarriage. Using the 1979-2010 rounds of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979, we examined the likelihood of remarriage for divorced mothers (n=882) by nonresident father contact with children and payment of child support. The findings suggest that maternal remarriage is positively associated with nonresident father contact but not related to receiving child support.
	Bibliography Citation McNamee, Catherine and Paul R. Amato. "Nonresident Father Involvement with Children and Divorced Women’s Likelihood of Remarriage." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

504.	Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
504.	Jobs, Marriage, and Children: How His and Her Jobs Affect Child Well-Being Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although employment of both parents in married-couple families is now common in the U.S., men and women continue to face gender-differentiated work and family expectations. This study focuses on similarities and differences in how mothers' and fathers' work conditions affect family and child outcomes. Using the Child-Mother data set of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, I examine a synthetic cohort of 2,865 families with two employed parents and an early school-age child. I focus on work complexity, hourly earnings, and usual work hours, and hypothesize that each parent's greater work complexity and higher earnings will be associated with higher marital quality, better home environments, and better child-well-being, with father effects stronger. Full-time work schedules are expected to be more positive than both very low hours and extensive overtime. Consistent with gendered expectations regarding optimal work-family balancing, however, mothers' extensive overtime, but fathers' less-than-full-time hours, will be especially problematic.
	Bibliography Citation Menaghan, Elizabeth G. "Jobs, Marriage, and Children: How His and Her Jobs Affect Child Well-Being." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

505.	Menaghan, Elizabeth G. Cooksey, Elizabeth C. Mott, Frank L.
505.	Nicotine Exposure before Birth and Children's Behavior Problems in Middle Childhood: Toward Understanding the Linkage Working Paper, Department of Sociology and Center for Human Resource Research, The Ohio State University, 1998 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Health; Children, Adjustment Problems; Children, Behavioral Development; Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Deviance; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Family Environment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Maternal Employment; Pre-natal Care/Exposure; Pre/post Natal Behavior; Pre/post Natal Health Care Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Also: presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998 Using linked child-mother data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth (NLSY) we examine the association between maternal smoking behavior during pregnancy and children's later levels of externalizing behavior problems at ages ten and eleven. We examine to what extent this association may reflect common correlates with associated maternal resources, skills, and characteristics, be a result of associated differences in the quality of current work and family circumstances, or reflect other indicators of poorer maternal attitudes and behaviors. We also evaluate whether part of this relationship is mediated through associated child physical health, especially respiratory, problems. We consider parallel arguments for effects of current maternal smoking, and also evaluate the potential mediational role of family home environments. Only a small part of this relationship appears to be mediated through associated child physical health problems, while there is some suggestion that smoking during pregnancy may reflect associated maternal life difficulties as well as more compromised family home environments.
	Bibliography Citation Menaghan, Elizabeth G., Elizabeth C. Cooksey and Frank L. Mott. "Nicotine Exposure before Birth and Children's Behavior Problems in Middle Childhood: Toward Understanding the Linkage." Working Paper, Department of Sociology and Center for Human Resource Research, The Ohio State University, 1998.

506.	Menaghan, Elizabeth G. Kowaleski-Jones, Lori Mott, Frank L.
506.	Impact of Social Stressors on Academic and Social Difficulties in Early Adolescence: Evidence from the NLSY Mothers and Children Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Fathers, Absence; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Household Composition; Locus of Control (see Rotter Scale); Maternal Employment; Rotter Scale (see Locus of Control) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Menaghan, Elizabeth G., Lori Kowaleski-Jones and Frank L. Mott. "Impact of Social Stressors on Academic and Social Difficulties in Early Adolescence: Evidence from the NLSY Mothers and Children." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

507.	Menaghan, Elizabeth G. Mott, Frank L. Cooksey, Elizabeth C. Jekielek, Susan Marie
507.	Long Reach of the Job: Effects of Mothers' Work Experiences on Oppositional Action in Early Adolescence Working Paper, Department of Sociology and Center for Human Resource Research, The Ohio State University, 1998 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Bias Decomposition; Employment; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Fathers, Absence; Maternal Employment; Mothers; Work Experience Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Also: Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998 While research has examined how maternal work and family patterns affect pre-school and younger children, we are less well informed about effects in early adolescence, and in particular, how changes in parents' work and family circumstances over time may alter their children's risks for behavior problems. in this analysis, we focus on one aspect of behavior problems, propensities to oppositional action, and study its trajectory from middle childhood (ages 6-7) to early adolescence (ages 10-11), linking this trajectory to maternal employment patterns over the same time period. We study these trajectories for a national sample of 1,917 children aged 10-11 drawn from the Child-Mother data set of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. This is a synthetic cohort constructed by pooling children aged 10-11 in 1990, 1992, and 1994. We focus on three features of maternal employment: the extensiveness of employment, as tapped by the proportion of weeks worked over the last four years; the st ability of employment, as tapped by the number of starts and stops in employment over that period; and the quality of employment, as tapped by the substantive complexity and opportunities for self-direction of the mother's occupation. We include statistical controls for maternal and child characteristics, as well as for family compositional patterns and spouse employment characteristics. We find that the key contrasts are between mothers with no employment at any point, those with intermittent employment, and those with continuous employment. Children of those never employed are most prone to oppositional behavior problems, while those whose mothers were continuously employed are least prone, even after stringent controls for associated human and social capital, family compositional patterns, and quality of employment. Our data also suggest that low to no maternal employment has more negative effects on children not living stably with their fathers over the past four years. The quality of employment is associated with more stable employment patterns, and we find no independent effect of employment quality on early adolescent outcomes once we take stability and extensiveness into account. Earlier levels of oppositional action (at ages 6-7) are strongly correlated with levels four years later (bivariate r += . 60); multivariate beta = +.52), but earlier levels are not consistently or significantly associated with employment patterns over the four year period, and controlling for those earlier levels does not substantially alter effects of maternal employment patterns previously observed. Thus, these negative impacts of stable non-employment and very low levels of employment persist even when earlier levels of behavior problems are controlled, suggesting that they represent increases over time, not simply persistence of higher levels established at earlier time points.
	Bibliography Citation Menaghan, Elizabeth G., Frank L. Mott, Elizabeth C. Cooksey and Susan Marie Jekielek. "Long Reach of the Job: Effects of Mothers' Work Experiences on Oppositional Action in Early Adolescence." Working Paper, Department of Sociology and Center for Human Resource Research, The Ohio State University, 1998.

508.	Mendola, Daria Sironi, Maria Aassve, Arnstein
508.	A Cohort Perspective of Youth Poverty in the United States Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Poverty; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The aim of this paper is to study the degree of poverty persistence of American young adults and its evolution. Using data from NLSY79 and NLSY97, respectively, we compared two cohorts followed along eight years (in the 1980s and in the 2000s) to assess which socio-economic characteristics preserve them to fall in chronic poverty or determine the duration and severity of this detrimental experience. (Note: Also presented in Budapest, Hungary, European Population Conference, June 2014)
	Bibliography Citation Mendola, Daria, Maria Sironi and Arnstein Aassve. "A Cohort Perspective of Youth Poverty in the United States." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

509.	Mensch, Barbara S. Rosenbaum, Emily Kandel, Denise B.
509.	Drug Use as a Risk Factor for Premarital Pregnancy in a National Sample of Young Women Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Abortion; Adolescent Fertility; Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Contraception; Deviance; Drug Use; Hispanics; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Racial Differences; Religion; Self-Esteem; Self-Reporting; Sexual Activity; Teenagers Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study explores the relationship between adolescent drug use and premarital teen pregnancy with data from the 1979-1985 waves of the NLSY. Event history analysis is used to specify the effect of prior drug use on premarital teen pregnancy with controls for seemingly shared personality, lifestyle, and biological factors. Among white young women illicit drug use is the second most important predictor. The risk of premarital teen pregnancy is nearly four times higher for those who have used illicit drugs other than marijuana compared to those with no history of any prior substance involvement. Illicit drug use has no effect on premarital pregnancy for blacks and Hispanics. Alternative explanations may account for the ethnic differences. One possibility is that premarital pregnancy is more normative for nonwhites and therefore less likely to be determined by prior deviant activities. Another possibility is that greater unreliability of self-reports by blacks and Hispanics may alter the observed effects.
	Bibliography Citation Mensch, Barbara S., Emily Rosenbaum and Denise B. Kandel. "Drug Use as a Risk Factor for Premarital Pregnancy in a National Sample of Young Women." Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990.

510.	Mernitz, Sara E.
510.	Stable Cohabitation and Health during the Transition to Adulthood Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Health, Mental/Psychological; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. During the transition to adulthood, developing and maintaining emotional and physical intimacy with a committed romantic partner is a key developmental task. Many young adults enter into cohabiting unions to fulfill this task, with implications for health and wellbeing. Although marriage is consistently associated with better health outcomes than cohabitation, marriage is becoming less attainable for youth today. Young adults have high expectations for their marriage and marriage requires greater psychological investment. Cohabitation may provide a better alternative, resulting in more stable long-term cohabiting unions, yet the health implications of stable cohabitation are unknown. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, I examine the association between stable cohabitation and emotional health. Using pooled fixed effects regression, I find preliminary evidence that transitioning from a shorter duration cohabitation into a longer stable cohabitation is associated with decreased emotional health.
	Bibliography Citation Mernitz, Sara E. "Stable Cohabitation and Health during the Transition to Adulthood." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

511.	Mernitz, Sara E. Pollitt, Amanda
511.	Same-Sex Union Formation During the Transition to Adulthood Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Gender; Marriage; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Romantic unions (i.e., cohabitation and marriage) during the transition to adulthood are critical for young adult development, yet little is known about same-sex unions. Evidence on sexual minority youth suggests that youth commonly form both different- and same-sex relationships but it is unclear if similar patterns occur in romantic unions. We used the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 to identify young adults who formed same-sex unions and predicted timing to entrance into a first union and demographic and socioeconomic predictors of this timing. We found that, among young adults who ever form a same-sex union, women who first enter different-sex unions enter these unions faster than men who first form different-sex unions and women and men who first form same-sex unions. Women who first form same-sex unions were slowest to form unions. Demographic and socioeconomic differences in timing to first union, whether same- or different-sex, were concentrated among men.
	Bibliography Citation Mernitz, Sara E. and Amanda Pollitt. "Same-Sex Union Formation During the Transition to Adulthood." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

512.	Milesi, Carolina
512.	Inequality in Post-Secondary Educational Attainment among Traditional and Non-Traditional High School Graduates Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=72112 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cognitive Ability; College Graduates; Educational Attainment; GED/General Educational Diploma/General Equivalency Degree/General Educational Development; High School Completion/Graduates; Socioeconomic Background Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study analyzes the impact different high school credentials have on inequality of educational attainment. I compare the post-secondary degree attainment of students who graduate from high school through a "traditional" high school diploma with those who graduate by means of a General Educational Development (GED) certificate. Using detailed data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979-2002, I found that whether students complete any post-secondary degree is affected by the type of high school credential they attain, the timing at which the transitions out of secondary education and into post-secondary education occur, and the sequence of events within educational levels – even after taking into account differences in socioeconomic background, cognitive skills, and non-cognitive skills. This research demonstrates that a framework that takes into account the type, timing, and sequence of educational experiences within students' careers offers a more complete understanding of inequality in educational attainment.
	Bibliography Citation Milesi, Carolina. "Inequality in Post-Secondary Educational Attainment among Traditional and Non-Traditional High School Graduates." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

513.	Milesi, Carolina
513.	Pathways to College across Two Youth Cohorts Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; College Enrollment; College Graduates; Education; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study compares the educational trajectories of students from two different cohorts born approximately 20 years apart. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, this paper examines whether and how postsecondary educational trajectories have changed for students who mainly attended college in the 1980's versus those who mostly attended college in 2000's. This project describes how the process of college enrollment, college persistence, and college completion have changed throughout this period and assesses whether, as a result of these different trajectories, socioeconomic inequality has increased, decreased or remained the same.
	Bibliography Citation Milesi, Carolina. "Pathways to College across Two Youth Cohorts." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

514.	Milesi, Carolina
514.	Social Classes, Inequalities and Health Disparities: The Intervening Role of Early Health Status Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2003 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Health; Economic Well-Being; Health Factors; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mortality Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The persistence of adult health and mortality inequalities and the equally stubborn reproduction of social class inequalities are two salient regularities in modern societies that puzzle researchers in completely different and unconnected research domains. Using a new strand of labor economics emphasizing the existence of non-conventional skills and relying on research findings about the effects of early childhood health and conditions on adult health and economic successes, this paper poses attempts to (a) partially account for intergenerational transmission of inequalities and (b) partially confirm the plausibility and importance of health selection (selection of Type II) as an explanation for current adult health and mortality differentials. We use estimates from NLSY and ECLS as well as from extant economics literature to assemble approximate estimates for the contribution of early child conditions to intergenerational transmission of inequalities, and suggest extensions of the same procedure to account for adult health and mortality inequalities.
	Bibliography Citation Milesi, Carolina. "Social Classes, Inequalities and Health Disparities: The Intervening Role of Early Health Status." Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2003.

515.	Milesi, Carolina Bittmann, Russell
515.	The Effects of Timing and Duration of Adolescent and Early Adulthood Obesity on College Enrollment and Completion Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); College Degree; College Enrollment; Educational Attainment; Obesity Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We estimate the effects of current obesity status as well as of obesity duration on the probabilities of entering college and completing a bachelor’s degree for U.S. youth. We conjecture that the relatively well-established effects of obesity at one point in time are just the tip of the iceberg and that they vastly underplay the real effects of obesity that are mostly driven by the timing of onset and duration of obesity thus implying cumulative effects. We discuss the implications of these results: given past growing rates of obesity prevalence and progressively earlier onset of obesity among the U.S. youth, the estimates we obtain have ominous consequences for future educational success of all U.S. youth and particularly for females and racial and ethnic minorities.
	Bibliography Citation Milesi, Carolina and Russell Bittmann. "The Effects of Timing and Duration of Adolescent and Early Adulthood Obesity on College Enrollment and Completion." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

516.	Miller, Daniel P. Han, Wen-Jui
516.	Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Adolescent Overweight Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, Annual Meeting, 2008. Also: http://paa2008.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=81137 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Maternal Employment; Mothers; Obesity; Poverty; Shift Workers; Television Viewing; Variables, Independent - Covariate; Weight; Work Hours/Schedule; Work, Atypical Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines the association between nonstandard shift work and overweight in 13 and 14 year-old adolescents. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth – Child Supplement, we examine how the number of years of nonstandard work by mothers over the lifetime of her child is associated with changes in body mass index (BMI) and the odds of being overweight. We find a significant, non-linear relationship between the number of years a mother worked nonstandard shifts and both outcomes, independent of a number of covariates. Specifically, working either a few years or many years of nonstandard shifts was associated with increases in BMI and risk of overweight. Moreover, this association is driven by families with incomes that identify them as "near-poor." Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Daniel P. and Wen-Jui Han. "Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Adolescent Overweight." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, Annual Meeting, 2008.

517.	Miller, Jane E.
517.	Poverty Patterns and Cognitive Development in the NLSY Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Child Development; Children; Educational Attainment; Mothers, Education; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Poverty; Test Scores/Test theory/IRT Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Data on children born to women in the NLSY are used to analyze relations between seven types of childhood poverty patterns (based on the number, duration and frequency of poverty spells observed between 1981 and 1991) and scores on the Peabody Individual Achievement Tests (PIAT) in math and reading at ages 5-9 years. Total number of years in poverty appears to matter more than number of spells or income variance: Children who were poor for most of their childhood, whether in one uninterrupted spell or several spells, had lower scores than children who had never been poor. These differences remain even when mother's educational attainment, age at first birth, marital history and other factors that are correlated with both poverty and child development are controlled. Children who experienced one or more short spells of poverty generally did no worse than those who had never been poor. Poverty status in the child's year of birth is strongly associated with cognitive test scores, and explains most of the association between childhood poverty histories and those outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. "Poverty Patterns and Cognitive Development in the NLSY." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

518.	Miller, Jane E. Korenman, Sanders D.
518.	Long-Term Poverty, Children's Nutritional Status and Growth in the U.S. Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Health; Children; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale); Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we estimate relations among poverty nutritional status and growth of children under age five in the U.S. Long-term (10-year) poverty measures are shown to be more strongly related than short-term measures to the prevalence of "stunting" (low height-for-age) and "wasting" (low weight-for-height). Children from chronically poor families are about 40 percent more likely to be stunted and about 45 percent more likely to be wasted than children from middle income families. Both small size at birth and slower growth after birth appear to contribute to the poor nutritional status of low income children. In our sample, over 10 percent of infants born to chronically poor women are low birthweight compared to only 4.5 percent of infants born to middle-income women. Low-income children also exhibit slower rates of growth in both height and weight. We also estimate multivariate models in order to shed light on the mechanisms whereby long term poverty leads to poor nutritional status among young children.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Sanders D. Korenman. "Long-Term Poverty, Children's Nutritional Status and Growth in the U.S." Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993.

519.	Miller, Jane E. Korenman, Sanders D.
519.	Poverty Dynamics and Cognitive Development Among Young Children Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Children, Preschool; Cognitive Development; Disadvantaged, Economically; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Income; Mothers, Education; Motor and Social Development (MSD); Parents, Single; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Social Influences; Test Scores/Test theory/IRT; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We use prospectively collected information from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979-198 to estimate the relation between timing of poverty and several measures of children's cognitive development, including tests of picture vocabulary, reading, mathematics, and motor and social development. Deficits are greatest among children who were poor between birth and age three; deficit are also notable for the prenatally poor. Differentials according to poverty status remain sizeable even in models that also control for other correlates of poverty, including low mother's educational attainment, young age at first birth and single parent family structure. There is evidence that deficit associated with poverty are persistent, cumulative, and interactive across age intervals. Aspects of the home environment measured by the HOME score is a significant mediator between economic deprivation and cognitive development. Maternal academic aptitude is also associated with both poverty and developmental scores.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Sanders D. Korenman. "Poverty Dynamics and Cognitive Development Among Young Children." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

520.	Miller, Jane E. Sjaastad, John E.
520.	Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the United States: Results from the NLSY Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Alcohol Use; Child Development; Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Cognitive Development; Family Structure; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Mothers, Education; Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Parents, Single; Poverty; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We describe deficits in cognitive and socioemotional development in early childhood that arc associated with long-term poverty among children from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979-1991. Children who are poor over many years are substantially developmentally disadvantaged compared to those who are not. Developmental deficit associated with long-term poverty are roughly twice as large as those associated with poverty in the year of assessment. These deficits are not accounted for by characteristics associated with poverty such as low maternal education, single parent family structure, young age of the mother at first birth, large family size, smoking or alcohol during pregnancy, minority racial identification, or by deficits in nutritional status or poor health at birth. The HOME (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment) assessment score and maternal AFQT score and account for a large part of the cognitive deficit, although sizable deficits remain after controlling for both factors.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and John E. Sjaastad. "Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the United States: Results from the NLSY." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

521.	Mimura, Yoko Mauldin, Teresa A.
521.	American Young Adults' Rural-to-Urban Migration and Timing of Exits from Poverty Spells Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2001 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Exits; Family Characteristics; Gender; Human Capital; Marital Status; Migration; Poverty; Rural/Urban Differences; Rural/Urban Migration Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examined the timing of exit from poverty among rural young adults who migrated to urban areas in the United States, using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, with a focus on gender and marital status. Poverty spells that involved relocation to urban areas lasted longer than those that did not. Poverty exit rates upon relocating to urban areas declined each year the young adults remained in poverty, but the impact of remaining in urban areas on reduced poverty exit rates diminished when family characteristics, human capital, and labor market factors were controlled.
	Bibliography Citation Mimura, Yoko and Teresa A. Mauldin. "American Young Adults' Rural-to-Urban Migration and Timing of Exits from Poverty Spells." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2001.

522.	Mimura, Yoko Mauldin, Teresa A.
522.	Duration in Poverty among Young Adults in Rural America Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2000 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Economic Well-Being; Educational Attainment; Employment; Family Characteristics; Fathers; Household Composition; Human Capital; Marital Status; Poverty; Rural Areas; Youth Problems Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper focuses on understanding the poverty dynamics among young adults in rural areas, based on a hypothesis that human capital formation opportunities and subsequent economic well-being are different for rural and urban residents. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 79 cohort data and survival analysis, we examined rural young adults aged at least 23 for their exit from poverty spell as a function of duration of the spell, family background characteristics, human capital, labor market factors, and other socio-demographic variables. The sample included individuals who experienced a poverty spell and have lived in rural areas at least once between 1981 and 1993. Older cohorts were more likely to have exited from a poverty spell. General literacy rate at age 14, having a father who was born in a foreign country, and higher education of father increased the likelihood that a respondent exited from a poverty spell. Moving to either a rural or urban area, living in the north-central region as opposed to the South, not being employed, and having more children of one
	Bibliography Citation Mimura, Yoko and Teresa A. Mauldin. "Duration in Poverty among Young Adults in Rural America." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2000.

523.	Min, Hyunjoo
523.	Occupational Sex Segregation, Maternity and Job Transitions among Women Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Exits; Gender Differences; Labor Force Participation; Occupations, Female Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Some studies of occupational sex segregation argue that women choose female-typed occupations because they entail lower costs associated with time out of the labor force due to childbearing. This paper evaluates this proposition by examining the effects of occupational sex-type on job exits and re-entrances, with a special focus on interaction effects between sex-type and maternity. We draw on data from 18 waves of the NLSY, estimating continuous-time event historical models. Preliminary results suggest that women in mixed-sex occupations are least likely to make a job exit around the birth of a child. Women in female-dominated jobs are less likely to leave for a birth, but if they do leave, they are the least likely to return to work.
	Bibliography Citation Min, Hyunjoo. "Occupational Sex Segregation, Maternity and Job Transitions among Women." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002.

524.	Min, Stella Taylor, Miles G.
524.	Student Loan Debt and Race Ethnic Variation in Timing of First Birth Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Graduates; Debt/Borrowing; Fertility; Financial Assistance; First Birth; Propensity Scores; Racial Differences; Student Loans / Student Aid Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Emerging literature indicates a negative association between student loan debt and marriage. However, the impact of student loans on the fertility behavior among young adults is largely unknown. The present study utilizes discrete time event history models to examine the relationship between student loan debt and hazard of first birth among female college graduates using the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97). The results reveal that the effect of student loan debt differs among white and non-white women, and that the relationship is contingent on marital status. Unmarried non-white graduates with student loans are at significantly greater risk of first birth than their counterparts without loans. These results hold even after sensitivity analyses using propensity score matching to correct for selection into student loan debt. The results provide a foundation for deeper investigation into the heterogeneity that exists among college-educated women in terms of their family formation behaviors.
	Bibliography Citation Min, Stella and Miles G. Taylor. "Student Loan Debt and Race Ethnic Variation in Timing of First Birth." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

525.	Mireles, Amanda
525.	Reciprocal Spheres: Educational Advantage and the Marriage Wage Premium Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Gender Differences; Husbands; Marriage; Wages, Men; Wages, Women; Wives Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Women have made significant gains in education over a time period in which men's educational gains have stagnated. This means that, while in the past most married men had more education than their wives, today, in an increasing number of couples, wives have more education than their husbands. Research shows that such counter-normative gender contexts differentially impact men's and women's behaviors at home and in the workplace. In this paper, I focus on wives' educational advantage as a newly documented form of interpersonal advantage in marriage with potential to shape variation in the marriage wage premium. Using data from the NLSY79 and fixed effects models, I assess how wives' educational advantage affects the marriage wage premium among a cohort where wives' education had begun to exceed husbands' education. This paper offers new evidence that the educational progress women have made in recent decades benefits the men with which they partner. [Also presented at Montreal, QC, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2017]
	Bibliography Citation Mireles, Amanda. "Reciprocal Spheres: Educational Advantage and the Marriage Wage Premium." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

526.	Mitchell, Katherine Stamps
526.	Children's Long-Term Family Structure Experiences and Adolescent Outcomes Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Depression (see also CESD); Divorce; Family Structure; Parent-Child Interaction; Parent-Child Relationship/Closeness; Parental Marital Status; Parents, Single; Stepfamilies; Well-Being Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper documents the family living arrangements of a cohort of youth from birth through adolescence using merged mother and child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. In the sample of 1,870 children, 187 distinct family structure trajectories were identified. Latent class analysis yielded five distinguishable trajectories of children's living arrangements over the course of childhood: continuously married biological parent families, long-term single mother families, married biological parents who break up, cohabiting biological parents who marry or break up, and a trajectory distinguished by the addition of a stepfather at some point during childhood. The trajectories characterized by parental divorce and growing up with a long-term single mother were generally associated with lower levels of well-being in adolescence. Family instability, measured by the number of family structure transitions children experienced, was also associated with higher levels of depression and delinquency in adolescence independently of family structure trajectories.
	Bibliography Citation Mitchell, Katherine Stamps. "Children's Long-Term Family Structure Experiences and Adolescent Outcomes." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

527.	Mitchell, Katherine Stamps Dorius, Cassandra J. Hernandez, Daphne C.
527.	Family Instability and Adolescents’ Dating and Sexual Initiation Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Dating; Depression (see also CESD); Family Structure; Menarche/First Menstruation; Racial Differences; Self-Esteem; Sexual Activity Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study draws on the family instability hypothesis to investigate whether and how long-term family structure experiences predict the onset of romantic relationships in adolescence. Using merged mother and child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and NLSY79 Child and Young Adults (CNLSY), we explore the association between family instability and adolescents’ dating and sexual initiation. Results indicate that family instability does not appear to be associated with the onset of dating. Family instability is an important predictor of early sexual initiation for both male and female adolescents, however. The effect of family instability on early sex appears to be slightly stronger for male and Black adolescents compared to female and non-Black, non-Hispanic adolescents. We also investigate several possible moderators of the relationship between family instability and sexual initiation, including self-esteem, depression, and menarche (for females).
	Bibliography Citation Mitchell, Katherine Stamps, Cassandra J. Dorius and Daphne C. Hernandez. "Family Instability and Adolescents’ Dating and Sexual Initiation." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

528.	Monaghan, David B.
528.	Adult Participation in Undergraduate Education: Trends, Patterns, and Attainment over the Life Course Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; Educational Attainment; Life Course Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Adult students – defined as students aged 25 or older – now make up a substantial portion of the undergraduate population, but very little research has been carried out on this population. I first present a statistical profile of which contrasts adult undergraduates with traditionally-aged students in terms of demographic composition, socioeconomic status, high school academic preparation, and college behavior. I find that most adult undergraduates began postsecondary education during ‘traditional’ ages, which suggests that adult students represent for the most part delayed completers rather than new enrollees. I go on to assess trends in age-specific postsecondary enrollment over the past four decades. Finally, using the NLSY79, I examine the contribution of adult educational upgrading to cohort educational attainment, and determine whether adult attainment narrows or exacerbates educational disparities which emerged earlier in life.
	Bibliography Citation Monaghan, David B. "Adult Participation in Undergraduate Education: Trends, Patterns, and Attainment over the Life Course." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

529.	Moon, Elizabeth A. Mott, Frank L.
529.	Poverty, Welfare, and Family Structure: Consequences for Children's Cognitive Development Presented: Washington, DC, Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, March 1997 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC); Child Development; Cognitive Development; Family Structure; Human Capital; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Racial Studies; Regions; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Moon, Elizabeth A. and Frank L. Mott. "Poverty, Welfare, and Family Structure: Consequences for Children's Cognitive Development." Presented: Washington, DC, Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, March 1997.

530.	Moore, David Eugene Hayward, Mark D.
530.	Mortality Among a Cohort of Older Men Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1988 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Health Factors; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Mortality; Occupational Choice; Working Conditions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper presents findings from an analysis of occupational differentials in mortality among a cohort of older men ages 55 years and older in the United States for the period 1966-1983. The dynamics which characterize socioeconomic differentials in mortality are analyzed by tracking the changes in status that occur throughout the mature worker's occupational career. We find that the mortality of current or last occupation differs from that of the longest occupation, controlling for education, income, health status, and other factors. These differences are consistent with the notion that individuals in physically demanding or debilitating occupations attempt to avoid the health risks associated with these jobs by changing occupations.
	Bibliography Citation Moore, David Eugene and Mark D. Hayward. "Mortality Among a Cohort of Older Men." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1988.

531.	Moore, Kristin Anderson Hair, Elizabeth Catherine
531.	Parent Religious Beliefs and Adolescent Outcomes Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Parent-Child Relationship/Closeness; Parental Influences; Parents, Behavior; Religion; Religious Influences; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Substance Use Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Attendance at religious services has been examined frequently in studies of adolescent development and is generally found correlated with more positive outcomes. However, little empirical work has been done to examine the factors that explain these correlations. Using measures of religious belief designed at Child Trends and included in the 1997 panel of the new National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we estimate multivariate models to explore the relative importance of family religious attendance compared with parental religious beliefs, family socioeconomic status, demographic characteristics, and parenting practices. Measures of religious belief include the importance of religious belief, prayer, and the degree to which they believe that the scriptures of their faith should be interpreted literally. Child outcomes include measures of the parent-child relationship and measures of adolescent substance use and delinquency.
	Bibliography Citation Moore, Kristin Anderson and Elizabeth Catherine Hair. "Parent Religious Beliefs and Adolescent Outcomes." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002.

532.	Moore, Kristin Anderson Hair, Elizabeth Catherine
532.	Patterns and Implications of Step-Parents/Adolescent Relationships Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 2001 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Adoption; Cohabitation; Family Characteristics; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Family Formation; Family Structure; Family Studies; Parents, Non-Custodial Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Increased marital dissolution and non-marital childbearing have resulted in high proportions of American children who live with step-parents during their adolescent years. The new National Longitudinal Survey of Youth - 1997 (NLS97) panel, a nationally representative sample of 9,022 adolescents aged 12-16 in 1997, includes rich information on parent-adolescent relationships as well as on the parent's marital history. We address several questions: What are the within-group residential and marital history patterns of step-parent?; What are the implications of these different residential histories for adolescent/ step-parent relationships and for adolescent problem behaviors? While most adolescents live with two bio parents, large numbers live with non-adoptive step-parents, adoptive step-parents, and a parent's boy/girlfriend. Adolescents report feeling closer to residential bio parents and describe these parents as more supportive. Residential bio parents also monitor the adolescents more and the adolescents report fewer behavior problems and less substance use.
	Bibliography Citation Moore, Kristin Anderson and Elizabeth Catherine Hair. "Patterns and Implications of Step-Parents/Adolescent Relationships." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 2001.

533.	Moore, Kristin Anderson Manlove, Jennifer S. Terry-Humen, Elizabeth
533.	Positive Outcomes among the Adolescent Children of Teen Mothers Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mothers, Adolescent; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Test Scores/Test theory/IRT; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although children born to teen mothers are at higher risk of negative outcomes, many manage to succeed in life. We use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth - Child Supplement to explore positive outcomes among adolescents aged 13-14 across several outcome domains: their activities; internalizing and externalizing behaviors; and academic achievements. Bivariate and multivariate analyses show that adolescents whose mothers were in their late teens rather than their early teens when their first child was born have better outcomes, as do adolescents with fewer siblings, those whose biological father is in the household, those not receiving welfare and those not in poverty. Components of the adolescent's home environment, including cognitive stimulation and emotional support, are associated with positive outcomes in multiple domains. Other factors affect outcomes primarily in one domain; for example, maternal education and cognitive test scores affect primarily academic outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Moore, Kristin Anderson, Jennifer S. Manlove and Elizabeth Terry-Humen. "Positive Outcomes among the Adolescent Children of Teen Mothers." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002.

534.	Moore, Kristin Anderson Vandivere, Sharon Kinukawa, Akemi
534.	Turbulence During Childhood Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Care; Child Care Arrangements; Childhood Education, Early; Childhood Residence; Family Income; Family Structure; Parental Marital Status; Residence; Resilience/Developmental Assets; Schooling; Turbulence Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Researchers have regularly found that turbulence is related to poorer development among children. For example, repeated changes in child care arrangements, family structure, income, residence and schooling have all been linked to poorer outcomes for children. This paper will examine measures of turbulence in children's lives through age 12 in schooling, residence, and parental marriage from Round 1 of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997 cohort. In addition, traumatic events, such as seeing a shooting, being bullied repeatedly, or experiencing a break-in, will be examined, along with social and demographic control variables, to assess the importance of turbulence over and above background factors and life stressors. Implications for behavior problems and delinquency will be examined. Analyses will assess whether turbulence matters, net of control variables, whether types of turbulence are cumulative or redundant, and whether some types of turbulence are more critical than others.
	Bibliography Citation Moore, Kristin Anderson, Sharon Vandivere and Akemi Kinukawa. "Turbulence During Childhood." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

535.	Moore, Quinn Schmidt, Lucie
535.	Do the Human Capital Investments of Young Mothers Affect Their Children's Educational Outcomes? Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2002. Also: http://www.williams.edu/Economics/wp/schmidtmoore_schmidt.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Children, Academic Development; Educational Attainment; Heterogeneity; Human Capital; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Mothers, Education; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Existing literature finds that highly educated mothers tend to have children with superior educational outcomes. However, little work has been done on the effects of human capital investments undertaken by women while they are mothering small children. A simple model of household time allocation would suggest that time spent on human capital investment would reduce time spent with children, and thus negatively impact the child outcomes. Alternatively, maternal time in education and training activities may have positive spillover effects on investment in children, including role model effects and improved ability to help with homework. This paper examines the relationship between human capital investments of young mothers and their children's educational outcomes using data from the Children of the NLSY. Preliminary results suggest that the positive spillover effects on child outcomes dominate the negative effects of time trade-offs.
	Bibliography Citation Moore, Quinn and Lucie Schmidt. "Do the Human Capital Investments of Young Mothers Affect Their Children's Educational Outcomes?" Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2002.

536.	Moore, Ravaris L.
536.	Identifying the Effects of Parental Absence on the Probabilities of Graduation and Arrests Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Arrests; High School Completion/Graduates; Parental Influences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper uses data from the NLSY97 to investigate the effects of parental absence on high school graduation rates and young adult arrest probabilities. Respondents are segmented into five household structures reflecting the number of biological parents with whom they reside, and reason for parental absence. Differences in outcomes are characterized by group. A simple structural model then transforms group level differences into separate effects of parental absence, parental death, and unobserved factors correlated with endogenous parental absence. Preliminary findings suggest that parental absence is responsible for the vast majority of observed difference in graduation rates. Parental death also has a sizable effect. Circumstances have a very small effect. To the best of my knowledge, this is the first work that attempts to separate the effects of parental absence from unobserved effects of factors that correlated with parental absence.
	Bibliography Citation Moore, Ravaris L. "Identifying the Effects of Parental Absence on the Probabilities of Graduation and Arrests." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

537.	Mooyaart, Jarl Liefbroer, Aart C. Billari, Francesco
537.	Becoming Overweight and Obese in Early Adulthood: The Role of Career and Family Trajectories Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Family Formation; Obesity; Transition, Adulthood; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines the extent to which family and career trajectories during the transition to adulthood (age 17 to 25) influence the risk of becoming overweight or obese in early adulthood (age 28). We separate analyses by gender and control race, parental SES and family structure. We use data from NLSY97 (N=4700) to first identify typical trajectories using sequence analysis, and subsequently investigate whether career or family trajectories are associated with becoming overweight or obese in early adulthood. Results indicate that for women mainly career trajectories, for men family pathways matter in terms of the risk for overweight and obesity. Family background shows little effect with the exception of race.
	Bibliography Citation Mooyaart, Jarl, Aart C. Liefbroer and Francesco Billari. "Becoming Overweight and Obese in Early Adulthood: The Role of Career and Family Trajectories." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

538.	Morgan, S. Philip Rackin, Heather
538.	Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Measures of Unwanted Fertility Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Fertility; Motherhood; Mothers; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Wantedness Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We use the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to compare levels and correlates of prospective and retrospective measurements of unwanted fertility. Specifically, we contrast traditional retrospective measures with a new strategy that uses prospective intention measures that were asked 17 times over a three decade period. For instance, if a respondent reports in two consecutive surveys that she intends no more children, then we code a birth prior to the next survey as “prospectively unwanted”. Our preliminary results show that this prospective measure of unwanted fertility identifies 14.7% of all births to this cohort as unwanted. Traditional retrospective reports identify only 9.7% of births as unwanted. Planned analyses will compare the correlates of unwanted births using these two approaches as well as correlates of factors that predict when a birth will be differentially coded using these two approaches.
	Bibliography Citation Morgan, S. Philip and Heather Rackin. "Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Measures of Unwanted Fertility." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

539.	Morgan, S. Philip Rackin, Heather
539.	Revisiting "Missing the Target": Correspondence of Fertility Intentions and Behavior in the U.S. Presented: Detroit MI, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2009 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Birth Rate; Expectations/Intentions; Family Size; Fertility; Life Course; Marital Status Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Most young men and women intend to have children; two children is highly normative and the modal response. Fertility levels well below replacement result because these intentions are not met – a common occurrence in many countries. Using U.S. data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979 (NLSY79), we examine the co-variation in actual fertility and fertility intentions over a three-decade period. We build on Quesnel-Vallée and Morgan (2003) who used these same data. Specifically, the younger half of the sample has now reached the end of their reproductive years, and we can explore fully the correspondence between intended and realized family size (for women and men in the 1957 to 1964 birth cohorts). We begin to examine causes for the lack of correspondence in intent and behavior by examining the effect of blended families. Blended families change fertility intentions and realizations, contingent upon where previous children reside and other factors.
	Bibliography Citation Morgan, S. Philip and Heather Rackin. "Revisiting "Missing the Target": Correspondence of Fertility Intentions and Behavior in the U.S." Presented: Detroit MI, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2009.

540.	Morgan, S. Philip Rybinska, Anna
540.	Fertility Delay and Childlessness in the NLSY-79 Cohort Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Expectations/Intentions; Fertility; Life Course Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth provided valuable insights into the process of fertility delay and childlessness for a cohort of American women that recently finished their reproductive careers. We construct lifelines characterizing women’s childless expectations and fertility behavior over the life course as well as analyze the relationship between socio-economic factors and expected childlessness. One fourth of women in this cohort ever-reported a childless expectation. Two patterns capture the majority of childless women’s lifelines: those who repeatedly postponed childbearing and then adopted a childless expectation at older ages and those who expressed ambivalence about parenthood at various ages and never had children. These results show the pitfalls of assigning voluntary and involuntary childlessness to the reproductive experience of childless women. Childless expectations are strong predictors of permanent childlessness, regardless of the age when respondents verbalize them. Socio-economic factors are not strong predictors of expected childlessness.
	Bibliography Citation Morgan, S. Philip and Anna Rybinska. "Fertility Delay and Childlessness in the NLSY-79 Cohort." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

541.	Morgan, Stephen L.
541.	The Causal Effect of Family Income on College Entry and College Completion: A Feasible Semiparametric Approach for Isolating the Margin Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002. Also: http://paa2002.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.asp?submissionId=60927 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Dropouts; College Education; College Enrollment; Family Income Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Through an analysis of NLSY data, this paper examines whether or not family income shortfalls have long-run deprivation effects and/or short-run credit constraint effects on college entry and college completion patterns. Based on the logic of propensity score analysis, the favorite status attainment variable of educational expectations is used to develop a latent variable model of the propensity to enter and complete college. Using this estimated single dimension as a ranking of individuals, the conditional association between family income and educational transition rates is then analyzed for different strata of that population, some of which can be narrowly represented as students on the margin of college entry. This approach enables an inside-out approach to modeling the causal effect for those students most likely to be subject to the influence of short-run fluctuations in available credit.
	Bibliography Citation Morgan, Stephen L. "The Causal Effect of Family Income on College Entry and College Completion: A Feasible Semiparametric Approach for Isolating the Margin." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002.

542.	Morris, Martina Bernhardt, Annette Handcock, Mark S. Scott, Marc A.
542.	Wage Inequality and Labor Market Segmentation: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study Cohorts Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Labor Market Segmentation; Mobility; Mobility, Economic; Wage Equations; Wage Growth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The long term implications of the recent dramatic growth in economic inequality are not well understood. A key question is whether growing cross-sectional inequality is being driven by rising labor market segmentation into winners and losers: some workers with jobs that provide high wages and economic mobility, but others caught in a cycle of dead-end jobs with little opportunity for lifetime wage growth. We analyze the early work histories of two cohorts of young white men from the NLS for evidence of such changes. Both cohorts are 14-22 at entry and are followed for 16 years. The original cohort entered in 1966, the recent in 1979. We find that job instability has risen in the recent cohort, and that their longitudinal age-earnings profiles are becoming more unequal. The evidence suggests that labor market segmentation is rising, and that members of the recent cohort face a lifetime of greater inequality.
	Bibliography Citation Morris, Martina, Annette Bernhardt, Mark S. Handcock and Marc A. Scott. "Wage Inequality and Labor Market Segmentation: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study Cohorts." Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998.

543.	Morrison, Donna Ruane
543.	Costs of Economic Uncertainty: Child Well-Being in Cohabiting and Remarried Unions Following Parental Divorce Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2000 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Marital Disruption; Marital Status; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. INTRODUCTION EXCERPT: The present study takes a first step in addressing this issue [association between marital disruption and children's behavior problems and effect on academic achievement and competence] in a context, unlike most previous studies, that considers both the pre-disruption circumstances of mothers and children as well as the fluid nature of mothers' union statuses following the initial separation or divorce.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane. "Costs of Economic Uncertainty: Child Well-Being in Cohabiting and Remarried Unions Following Parental Divorce." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2000.

544.	Morrison, Donna Ruane
544.	Growing up Too Fast? The Implications of Precocious Social Competence in Young Adults from Disrupted Families Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2003 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. While considerable research has focused on identifying the problems of children whose parents have separated or divorced, surprisingly few large-scale empirical studies have examined the positive, adaptive skills of these children. This gap exists despite evidence from small-scale psychological studies suggesting that some youth from maritally disrupted families (especially girls) demonstrate significantly greater amounts of household responsibility and higher levels of social maturity than their counterparts in married families. Moreover, it is unknown whether precocious social and emotional competence in response to disruption is ultimately desirable or undesirable. The press for maturity may reverberate as an increased risk of depression in later life and difficulties in making transitions into adulthood . This study addresses these issues using a prospective design and longitudinal data available into young adulthood among the children of the NLSY. Precocious competence is measured within both socio-emotional and behavioral domains.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane. "Growing up Too Fast? The Implications of Precocious Social Competence in Young Adults from Disrupted Families." Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2003.

545.	Morrison, Donna Ruane
545.	Influence of Child Characteristics on Divorce Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association Meetings, May 9-11, 1996 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children; Divorce Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane. "Influence of Child Characteristics on Divorce." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association Meetings, May 9-11, 1996.

546.	Morrison, Donna Ruane
546.	Parental Divorce and Child Well-Being: Are There Lasting Effects? Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Children, Well-Being; Divorce; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Family Studies; Marital Dissolution Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The aim of the paper is to examine whether deleterious effects of parental divorce on child well-being abate after an initial period of adjustment. Critical transitions that occur in adolescence may trigger conflicts among older children of divorce. The study examines the trajectories of children in disrupted families over time using longitudinal data from the 1986, 1988, 1990, and 1992 child interviews of the NLSY-CS. The multivariate findings suggest that the effects of divorce on measures of child well-being no longer reach statistical significance 4- and 6-years post-disruption.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane. "Parental Divorce and Child Well-Being: Are There Lasting Effects?" Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

547.	Morrison, Donna Ruane
547.	Parenting After Divorce: Remarriage and Cohabitation from the Perspective of Children Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 1997 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane. "Parenting After Divorce: Remarriage and Cohabitation from the Perspective of Children." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 1997.

548.	Morrison, Donna Ruane
548.	Shuffling the Line-Up: How Shifting Household Membership Following Parental Divorce Affects Child Welfare Presented: Washington, DC, Poplation Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2001 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavioral Problems; Children, Behavioral Development; Divorce; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Family Formation; Family Structure; Family Studies; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Remarriage; Stepfamilies Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Typically we think of children's living arrangements following parental divorce according to three male partner-centered categories: mother remains single, mother remarries, or mother cohabits.These distinctions obscure other potentially important variations in household membership, however, to which many children are required to adapt. The boundaries of stepfamilies are often very fluid, for example, with step-children joining and departing the household at different points in the union, rather than arriving with the spouse or partner as a "package deal." Of course new unions also sometimes produce children of their own. Because these are issues largely untapped by large-scale empirical research, a much richer demographic picture of shifts in household composition in mother-custody families is needed as well as an understanding of the implications for child-well being. Employing merged mother-child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and up to five observation points per child, the paper uses fixed-effects regression models to examine the influence of changing household membership on children's behavior problems.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane. "Shuffling the Line-Up: How Shifting Household Membership Following Parental Divorce Affects Child Welfare." Presented: Washington, DC, Poplation Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2001.

549.	Morrison, Donna Ruane Cherlin, Andrew J.
549.	Divorce Process and Children's Well-Being: A Prospective Analysis Presented: Denver, CO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1992 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Child Development; Children; Children, Academic Development; Children, Behavioral Development; Divorce; Family Influences; Gender Differences; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Marital Disruption; Marriage; Mobility; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This analysis examines the consequences of marital disruption on the well-being of young children using the NLSY Merged Mother-Child file, a large-scale, longitudinal study that includes both detailed assessments of children and family characteristics. The authors take a prospective approach and account for the family situation before physical separation as well as practical, emotional, and economic changes that accompany divorce for children. Outcomes examined include the Behavior Problems Index (BPI) and three Peabody Individual Achievement sub-tests: mathematics, reading recognition and reading comprehension. The analysis begins with assessments of children whose parents' marriages are intact in 1986. By 1988 children fall into either disrupted or intact groups and their behavior and achievement are reassessed. It was found that negative effects of family disruption on the mathematics and BPI scores of boys are not reduced when prior family characteristics are controlled. In addition, the effect of disruption on mathematics test performance can be partially attributed to changes in the quality of the child's home environment, while downward mobility mediates the effect of divorce on boys' behavior.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane and Andrew J. Cherlin. "Divorce Process and Children's Well-Being: A Prospective Analysis." Presented: Denver, CO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1992.

550.	Morrison, Donna Ruane Coiro, Mary Jo Blumenthal, Connie
550.	Marital Disruption, Conflict, and the Well Being of Children and Youth Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994. Revised August 1994; Child Trends paper 94-12. Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Well-Being; Divorce; Educational Attainment; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Fathers, Absence; Gender Differences; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Income; Marital Disruption; Marital Stability; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Poverty Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent studies using prospective data have revealed that many of the problems experienced by children of divorce can be traced to experiences that actually predated the break-up. Family conflict is key among the predisruption factors that affect child well-being. In this paper we examine whether the effect of marital disruption on children and young adults depends on the quality of the parental marriage prior to the disruption. We use longitudinal data from two complementary national-level data bases--the National Survey of Children to examine postdisruption well-being in young adulthood, and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth - Supplement to examine outcomes among school-aged children. Because of documented differences in the way that boys and girls respond to psychosocial stress, we conduct our analyses separately by sex.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane, Mary Jo Coiro and Connie Blumenthal. "Marital Disruption, Conflict, and the Well Being of Children and Youth." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994. Revised August 1994; Child Trends paper 94-12.

551.	Morrison, Donna Ruane Furstenberg, Frank F. Jr. Ritualo, Amy R.
551.	Parenting After Divorce: Remarriage and Cohabitation from the Perspective of Children Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children, Well-Being; Cohabitation; Home Environment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Marital Disruption; Parents, Non-Custodial; Parents, Single; Remarriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. One million children per year experience the break-up of their parent's marriages, but divorce is only one link in a complex chain of events that may potentially affect child well-being. While children spend some time in single parent families following marital disruption, most divorced adults eventually enter new relationships. While remarriage is common, many new unions are non-marital. Neither the pattern of these often transitory relationships from the perspective of children nor their implications for child well-being are well documented in existing research. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youths child-mother data' this paper profiles maternal post-marital unions (remarriages and cohabitations) as experienced by children. We also explore the implications that alternative living arrangements following divorce have for the quality of the home environment provided to children.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane, Frank F. Jr. Furstenberg and Amy R. Ritualo. "Parenting After Divorce: Remarriage and Cohabitation from the Perspective of Children." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997.

552.	Morrison, Donna Ruane Myers, David E. Winglee, Marianne
552.	Effects of Maternal Work and Child Care During the First Three Years of Life on Children's Cognitive Abilities Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990. Working Paper, Decision Resources Corporation, July 1990 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Care; Child Development; General Assessment; Maternal Employment; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This analysis focuses on the effects of mothers' work, the type of child care arrangements, and the relationship of the care-giver to the child during the first three years of life on children's cognitive development. Children's experiences during each of these years, as well as their cumulative experiences in all three years, are analyzed. Data on children from the Child Supplement of the 1986 NLSY who range in age from zero to seven years old are used. This analysis lends support to earlier studies that have shown that maternal work itself generally has no effect on children's cognitive test performance, and when an effect is observed among children of low-income mothers, it is positive. It was found that significant effects of maternal work and child care observed in the first year are largely positive, although these positive effects are not observed in the second or the third years. In the year-2 and year-3 analyses, the authors found minimal effects of mothers' work intensity, inconsistent effects of child care, and no significant difference in the cognitive test performance of children with working and non-working mothers.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane, David E. Myers and Marianne Winglee. "Effects of Maternal Work and Child Care During the First Three Years of Life on Children's Cognitive Abilities." Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990. Working Paper, Decision Resources Corporation, July 1990.

553.	Morrison, Donna Ruane Ritualo, Amy R.
553.	Starting Over: How Children Fare in Remarriages and Cohabiting Unions Following Divorce Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Well-Being; Cohabitation; Divorce; Family Structure; Fathers, Absence; Fathers, Involvement; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Household Composition; Marital Disruption; Parents, Single; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Remarriage; Self-Esteem; Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. For children in maritally disrupted families, separation and divorce are often only the first of numerous changes in family structure to which they will need to adjust. Each time a mother and her children start over there are potential difficulties for children. Although available evidence suggests that children in step-families fare no better and possibly even worse than children whose mothers remain single following divorce we know virtually nothing about how the experience of mothers' cohabiting unions affects child well-being. Moreover, the implications of multiple transitions has been rarely studied. This paper examines the implications for child well-being of changes in family structure (remaining single, remarriage and cohabitation) in the aftermath of divorce, paying particular attention to the factors that enhance or undermine children's adjustment to them. We employ dynamic measures of children's post-disruption family structures that trace their mothers' union experiences from the initial separation or divorce to up to eight years later.
	Bibliography Citation Morrison, Donna Ruane and Amy R. Ritualo. "Starting Over: How Children Fare in Remarriages and Cohabiting Unions Following Divorce." Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998.

554.	Mott, Frank L. Cooksey, Elizabeth C. Hango, Darcy William Neubauer, Stefanie A.
554.	Gender and Race Differences in the Determinants of Early Adolescent Relationships: Evidence from the NLSY Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 2001 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Child Self-Administered Supplement (CSAS); Fathers, Presence; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Sexual Activity; Sexual Behavior; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this research, we use unique longitudinal data from the 1979 through 1998 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) and its linked child data set to explore the process by which family background and the development of early relationships may or may not translate into early sexual activity. Specifically, we follow a large national sample of youth from ages 11 or 12 to ages 15 or 16. All of the youth we follow are virgins as of ages 13 or 14. We examine the determinants of losing virginity between ages 13-14 and 15-16. Our particular focus in this paper is to explore the extent that there are meaningful generalizations regarding the determinants and the process that can be made across race and gender groups. That is, to what extent do black and white boys and girls follow common developmental pathways with regard to incipient sexual activity, and to what extent are there important factors that are suggestive of variations that may be socially based? In essence, using logit techniques, we try to untangle the independent paths between children's earlier environment, their early adolescent relationship networks, and their propensity to become sexually active by mid-adolescence.
	Bibliography Citation Mott, Frank L., Elizabeth C. Cooksey, Darcy William Hango and Stefanie A. Neubauer. "Gender and Race Differences in the Determinants of Early Adolescent Relationships: Evidence from the NLSY." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 2001.

555.	Mott, Frank L. Gryn, Thomas A.
555.	Evaluating Male Fertility Data: Who Reports Consistently and What are the Analytical Implications? Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2001 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at Birth; Education; Ethnic Groups/Ethnicity; Fertility; Racial Studies Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We follow a national sample of over 4,000 men from the 1979 (when they were 14-22 years old) to 1998 through 18 interview rounds using unique longitudinal data, describing their cumulative as well as cross-sectional fertility profiles (both before and after "cleaning" the data) and partially explaining the reasons for inconsistencies in reports over that interval. We document inconsistencies in reporting over that interval, and, using tabular and multivariate perspectives, clarify some of the characteristics of poorer reporters. In this regard, we provide a number of strong inferences regarding the reasons for differentials in reporting over time - both misreporting or inconsistencies in reporting - in dates of birth as well as actual acknowledgement of the existence of specific children. Factors considered (e.g.) in this examination include race/ethnicity, education, age at birth of child as well as parents' age, parental presence at birth as well as over the child's life.
	Bibliography Citation Mott, Frank L. and Thomas A. Gryn. "Evaluating Male Fertility Data: Who Reports Consistently and What are the Analytical Implications?" Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2001.

556.	Mott, Frank L. Haurin, R. Jean
556.	Longer Term Determinants of Male Mortality in the Years Surrounding Retirement Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Meetings, 1984 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Health Care; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Mortality; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Data from the Older Men's cohort are used to examine the extent to which background as well as more proximate factors are determinants of mortality over the period from 1966 to 1981 for a nationally representative sample of men who were 45 to 59 years of age in 1966. Included is a cohort trend analysis that gives special attention to the group of men who were ages 55 to 59 in 1966 because this group can be followed through the retirement years; by 1981, its surviving members had attained ages 70-74. The study documents how the generally acknowledged overall decline in mortality over the past 15 years has impacted fairly equally on all segments of the society. The only population subgroup that has benefited to a substantially greater extent than others is that group which includes the most obviously at risk individuals not at work who frequently report illnesses of long duration. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that those most in need have benefited most from the secular improvements in health care.
	Bibliography Citation Mott, Frank L. and R. Jean Haurin. "Longer Term Determinants of Male Mortality in the Years Surrounding Retirement." Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Meetings, 1984.

557.	Mott, Frank L. Kowaleski-Jones, Lori Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
557.	Gender Variations in the Associations Between Father's Absence from the Home and Children's Behavior: Sensitivity to Life Cycle Stage Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Children, Behavioral Development; Fathers, Absence; Gender Differences; Household Composition; Life Cycle Research; Maternal Employment; Mothers, Education; Poverty; Self-Esteem Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This research uses the 1979 through 1990 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and its complementary child assessment data to explore the shorter and longer term implications of a father's absence for the behavior of national sample of white children who are nine to eleven years of age in 1990. A particular focus of the research is to explore gender variations in the effects of father's absence on the behavior of this sample of about 500 children. The results suggest that (1) there is systematic evidence of strong associations between a fathers absence and a child's behavior in the shorter and longer run, with particular strong effects in the years immediately following the fathers departure. (2) More modest effects are found for girls than for boys. In this regard, there is no evidence of behavioral deterioration among girls compared to boys in the later childhood period -- either for children whose father has been absent for a lengthy time period or for children whose father left in the later childhood period.
	Bibliography Citation Mott, Frank L., Lori Kowaleski-Jones and Elizabeth G. Menaghan. "Gender Variations in the Associations Between Father's Absence from the Home and Children's Behavior: Sensitivity to Life Cycle Stage." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

558.	Mott, Frank L. Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
558.	Linkages Between Early Childhood Family Structure, Socio-Economic Well-Being and Middle-Childhood Socio-Emotional Development Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Children, Behavioral Development; Children, Home Environment; Children, Well-Being; Depression (see also CESD); Family Structure; Fathers, Absence; Household Composition; Parent-Child Relationship/Closeness; Peers/Peer influence/Peer relations; Poverty; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Well-Being Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This research uses family and child outcome data from the 1979 through 1990 rounds of the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth to explore associations between infant and early childhood family structure, socio-economic well-being and parent-child interaction patterns and evidence of subsequent behavior problems by the same children in the immediate pre-adolescent years. The children we follow in this research all have been born between the 1979 and 1982 survey rounds and thus will be between the ages of 8 and 11 as of the 1990 survey point. This sample of approximately 1300 children includes an over-representation of black youth. The separate black and white samples are sufficiently large to permit sample stratification as necessary. The outcome variables we focus on are a well-established nationally-normed behavior problems scale and six behavior problems subscales which measure anxiousness-depression, peer conflict, hyperactivity, headstrong behavior, dependency, and anti-social behavior.
	Bibliography Citation Mott, Frank L. and Elizabeth G. Menaghan. "Linkages Between Early Childhood Family Structure, Socio-Economic Well-Being and Middle-Childhood Socio-Emotional Development." Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993.

559.	Mott, Frank L. Moore, Sylvia F.
559.	Socioeconomic Determinants and Shortrun Consequences of Marital Disruption Presented: St Louis, MO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1977 Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Divorce; Employment; Husbands, Income; Marital Dissolution; Marriage; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The primary objective of this paper is to highlight the extent to which economic factors play major roles in creating or precipitating the marital disruption process. Other variables reflecting attitudinal, legal, and duration and timing elements function chiefly as controls on the model. This paper was published in Mott, Women, Work, and Family: Dimensions of Change in American Society.
	Bibliography Citation Mott, Frank L. and Sylvia F. Moore. "Socioeconomic Determinants and Shortrun Consequences of Marital Disruption." Presented: St Louis, MO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1977.

560.	Mott, Joshua Adam
560.	Repetition of Medically Attended Injuries Among Children in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth: An Issue of Access or Risk? Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Accidents; Child Health; Children, Health Care; Children, Well-Being; Injuries Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Mott, Joshua Adam. "Repetition of Medically Attended Injuries Among Children in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth: An Issue of Access or Risk?" Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997.

561.	Moullin, Sophie
561.	Marriage and Mental Health: Effects by Social and Self-selection Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Health, Mental/Psychological; Marriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Social scientists have long observed that married people tend to have better mental health. Selection into marriage, however, casts doubt of the validity of the effect of marriage. I consider how marriage effects on mental health vary by the observable propensity to marry (social selection), and the expectation to marry (self selection). To speak to the contemporary US adult population, I use the National Longitudinal Study of Youth- 1997. Preliminary analysis shows little short-term effect of ever-marrying (compared to never marrying) on mental health for this cohort, either in terms of variation within the population, or over the life course. However, as marriage rates have declined -- particularly among the more disadvantaged -- this analysis describes who, in terms of their mental health, can afford to be single.
	Bibliography Citation Moullin, Sophie. "Marriage and Mental Health: Effects by Social and Self-selection." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

562.	Mukherjee, Sumanta
562.	The Impact of Maternal Employment on Child's Mental Health: Evidence from NLSY-Child Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Mental Health; Cognitive Development; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Modeling, OLS; Noncognitive Skills; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Risk-Taking Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. An extensive literature has analyzed the effect of a mother's employment on cognitive outcomes of her children. However, the role of maternal employment in a child's noncognitive development has received comparatively scant attention. In this paper, data on a panel of children aged four through fifteen are analyzed to explore the effect of maternal employment on a child's mental health outcomes. Using ordinary least squares and fixed effects estimates, we find that mothers who spend more time at home have children with fewer emotional problems: they score lower on the behavioral problems index; they are also less likely to be frequently unhappy or depressed. In addition, children with mothers spending more time at home are less likely to hurt someone, steal something, or skip school.
	Bibliography Citation Mukherjee, Sumanta. "The Impact of Maternal Employment on Child's Mental Health: Evidence from NLSY-Child." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

563.	Musick, Kelly Brand, Jennie E. Davis, Dwight R.
563.	How College Shapes Union Formation Processes Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; College Education; Educational Aspirations/Expectations; Educational Returns; Marriage; Socioeconomic Background; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent work by Brand and colleagues demonstrates variation in the effects of education on economic returns to schooling (Brand and Xie Forthcoming) and fertility (Brand and Davis 2009). College has a greater (positive) effect on economic outcomes and a more deterring effect on fertility among those least likely to attend and complete their degrees, i.e., among those with the fewest socioeconomic advantages. We extend recent lines of inquiry into differential college effects and ask how they apply to union formation. Using data from the 1979 NLSY, we find that college effects are strongest in encouraging marriage and discouraging cohabitation among socially advantaged men and women with the highest propensity to attend college (cohabitation differences statistically significant for men only). These results question an “affordability” model of marriage positing the largest effects of college where the economic gains are greatest. The implications of our results for the changing meaning of marriage and cohabitation are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Musick, Kelly, Jennie E. Brand and Dwight R. Davis. "How College Shapes Union Formation Processes." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

564.	Musick, Kelly Edgington, Sarah
564.	Re-Examining Women's Wages and Fertility: Has the Relationship Changed over Time? Presented: Detroit MI, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2009. Also: http://paa2009.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=91935 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Care; Childbearing; Earnings; Employment; Fertility; Labor Force Participation; Wages, Women Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The opportunity cost or cost-of-time perspective posits that the higher wages and better employment opportunities of the more educated make time out of the labor force for childbearing and child rearing more costly. Increased options to combine work and family, however, undermine assumptions of this model and may weaken or even reverse the negative relationship between wages and fertility. We use rich longitudinal data from two cohorts of U.S. women to explore change in the relationship between wages and fertility.
	Bibliography Citation Musick, Kelly and Sarah Edgington. "Re-Examining Women's Wages and Fertility: Has the Relationship Changed over Time?" Presented: Detroit MI, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2009.

565.	Musick, Kelly Edgington, Sarah
565.	Underachieving Fertility: Education, Life Course Factors, and Cohort Change Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=72106 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; Education; Fertility Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Youth to examine cohort change in the relationship between fertility intentions, completed fertility, and education. While all women tend to fall short of their childbearing intentions, the gap between intended and realized fertility is greatest among the college educated. We examine what accounts for women's inability to meet their childbearing intentions, focusing in particular on how such factors differ by women's education, and whether these factors have changed over time. A common explanation of the education gap in fertility is the better employment opportunities of the more educated, which make time out of the labor force for children more costly. Increasingly, however, more educated women can substitute income for time in child care; their better marriage market opportunities may also mean more help from spouses. Have these changes led to increases the ability of college-educated women to meet their fertility intentions?
	Bibliography Citation Musick, Kelly and Sarah Edgington. "Underachieving Fertility: Education, Life Course Factors, and Cohort Change." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

566.	Musick, Kelly England, Paula A.
566.	Class and Education Differences in Planned and Unplanned Fertility Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005. Also: http://paa2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=51699 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Contraception; Education Indicators; Fertility; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Class and education differentials in levels of fertility are longstanding. In recent decades, class and education differentials in the timing of fertility have widened, with higher status women increasing age at first birth much more than lower status women. In this paper, we examine three potential factors explaining socioeconomic differences in fertility: 1) the value women place on children; 2) opportunity costs; and 3) contraceptive efficacy. Using data from over twenty years of the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), we describe patterns of planned and unplanned childbearing among women from different class backgrounds and with varying levels of own education. We use competing hazard models to examine the role of socioeconomic status in planned and unplanned fertility, and we explore the extent to which the association between socioeconomic status and fertility is mediated by childbearing ideals, opportunity costs, and consistency of contraceptive use.
	Bibliography Citation Musick, Kelly and Paula A. England. "Class and Education Differences in Planned and Unplanned Fertility." Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

567.	Myers, David E. Moore, Kristin Anderson Nord, Christine Winquis Brown, Brett V.
567.	Long-Term Consequences for Women of Having a Child During the Teen Years Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, 1991 Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Age at First Marriage; Childbearing; Educational Attainment; First Birth; Marriage; Simultaneity; Teenagers Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper focuses on the simultaneous effects of age at first birth, age at first marriage, and highest grade in school among women age 27. The work builds on earlier analyses in three ways. Individual level background characteristics are augmented with contextual variables such as labor market conditions and the incidence of female-headed households. In addition, an estimated strategy is employed that allows us to estimate the simultaneous effects of age at first birth, age at first marriage, and educational attainment, and to account for censoring of age at first birth and first marriage.
	Bibliography Citation Myers, David E., Kristin Anderson Moore, Christine Winquis Nord and Brett V. Brown. "Long-Term Consequences for Women of Having a Child During the Teen Years." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, 1991.

568.	Mykyta, Laryssa
568.	Socioeconomic (Dis)advantage, Contextual Risk and Educational Outcomes in Early Adulthood Presented: Detroit, MI, Population Association of America Meetings, April-May 2009 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Behavior, Prosocial; Child Self-Administered Supplement (CSAS); Educational Attainment; Family Structure; Parenting Skills/Styles; Pearlin Mastery Scale; Peers/Peer influence/Peer relations; School Dropouts; Volunteer Work Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. A vast body of literature addresses the effects of poverty on adolescent outcomes, yet few researchers have examined how economic disadvantage shapes the transition to adulthood in the U.S. If, as Furstenberg (2003; 2006) argues, family background creates divergent experiences for youth, then young adults from affluent, modest or limited means face different trajectories in the transition to adulthood. Understanding these differences and the factors that contribute to them has important implications for the reduction of inequality as well as for policies to improve children's life chances. In this paper, I explore the relationship between family income and educational outcomes typically considered as markers in the transition to adulthood. Specifically, I address how family socioeconomic status (SES) and changes in economic position in childhood influence educational outcomes in early adulthood. I also explore the extent to which family, peer, school and neighborhood contexts mediate the effects of family SES on educational outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Mykyta, Laryssa. "Socioeconomic (Dis)advantage, Contextual Risk and Educational Outcomes in Early Adulthood." Presented: Detroit, MI, Population Association of America Meetings, April-May 2009.

569.	Nam, Jaehyun
569.	Intergenerational Income Mobility, Income Inequality, and Government Investment in the United States Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Income; Geocoded Data; Income Distribution; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mobility, Economic; State-Level Data/Policy Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979, I first examine the association between intergenerational income mobility and income inequality in the United States, and then examine intergenerational income mobility with respect to income inequality and government spending. This study finds that rising income inequality acts to strengthen the importance of parental family income to child's income. Particularly, the evidence that higher income inequality decreases intergenerational income mobility is clearer when migration problems are addressed. This study extends to include government spending and provides evidence that additional government spending contributes to promoting intergenerational income mobility. Moreover, government spending moderates the effects of income inequality on intergenerational income mobility. This evidence indicates that government spending plays a role in blunting the decrease in intergenerational income mobility by offsetting the consequences of income inequality. A number of sensitivity tests confirm that the main results are robust and reliable.
	Bibliography Citation Nam, Jaehyun. "Intergenerational Income Mobility, Income Inequality, and Government Investment in the United States." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

570.	Nauck, Bernhard Yi, Chin-Chun Lois, Nadia
570.	Leaving the Parental Home: A Comparison between the United States, Taiwan and Germany Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): German Family Survey; Household Composition; Life Course; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Taiwanese Youth Project; Transition, Adulthood; Transition, School to Work Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The United States, Germany and Taiwan were chosen for a comparison of home leaving: Are mechanisms being identified in previous research valid under different socio-cultural conditions? Do the difference in kinship system (patrilineal/patrilocal vs. bilineal/neolocal) and the varying school-work-trajectory result in specific patterns of home leaving? Three large-scale nation-wide representative panel studies are used: NLSY of the US, the Taiwanese Youth Project, and the German Family Panel (pairfam). Data were harmonized post hoc to enable comparative analyses on life course transitions until the age of 30. Descriptive results showed not only strong differences in home leaving between countries, but also differences in the temporal character and the respective household composition. Multivariate analyses based on discrete time event history models demonstrated significant differences in effect sizes of various predictors for home leaving across countries, which were related to differences in the kinship structure and the institutionalization of the life course.
	Bibliography Citation Nauck, Bernhard, Chin-Chun Yi and Nadia Lois. "Leaving the Parental Home: A Comparison between the United States, Taiwan and Germany." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

571.	Nitsche, Natalie
571.	A Couple-Perspective on Fertility Outcomes: Do Relative Resources Matter for First and Second Births? Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Births, Repeat / Spacing; Childbearing; Educational Attainment; Fertility; First Birth; Gender Attitudes/Roles; Income Level; Labor Supply Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. McDonald (2000) has suggested that socio-economic gender equity within couples is a crucial component in women’s fertility decisions. Empirically, however, little is known about how couple dynamics are influencing fertility outcomes. This paper examines if gender equity, measured as relative levels of income, education, and labor market supply, affects the transition to first and second births in the US. While studies have investigated the effect of the gendered division of household labor on birth transitions, I argue that it is problematic as an indicator of intra-couple gender equity because research has shown that the division of household labor is itself an outcome of relative resources in couples. Using the NLSY79, this paper will use Cox regression models to understand how relative resources, absolute resources, and their interaction affect the timing and likelihood of first and second births in first unions using a competing risk design to account for the competing event of union dissolution.
	Bibliography Citation Nitsche, Natalie. "A Couple-Perspective on Fertility Outcomes: Do Relative Resources Matter for First and Second Births?" Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

572.	Nitsche, Natalie Hayford, Sarah R.
572.	Preferences, Partners, and Parenthood: Linking Early Fertility Desires, Union Formation Timing, and Achieved Fertility Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Age at First Marriage; Educational Attainment; Fertility; Gender Differences; Motherhood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Our paper addresses education and gender differences in the realization of early-life fertility desires, focusing on the role of union formation timing in achieving fertility goals over the life course. In particular, we investigate the effect of first union-postponement on realizing higher parity fertility desires at age 43. While it is known that 'underachieving' occurs more often among the higher educated and among those who postpone first marriage and parenthood beyond age 25, it is not yet well understood how the effect of union formation timing on fertility may differ by desired number of children and educational attainment. Using data from the NLSY79, first findings indicate a delay of first marriage and lower incidences of motherhood among college educated women desiring three or more compared to those desiring two children. Also, among the college educated, marrying after age 30 is associated with a sharp decline in motherhood, but not fatherhood. Note: A similar paper was also presented at Philadelphia PA, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2018.
	Bibliography Citation Nitsche, Natalie and Sarah R. Hayford. "Preferences, Partners, and Parenthood: Linking Early Fertility Desires, Union Formation Timing, and Achieved Fertility." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

573.	Nitsche, Natalie Hayford, Sarah R.
573.	The Impact of Early Fertility Desires on Union Formation and Timing Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Family Formation; Fertility; Marriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. While it is well known that early fertility desires affect childbearing behavior, it is not yet understood whether these early preferences may also affect women's union formation behavior. Drawing on data from the NLSY79, our study extends the literature by investigating whether the desired number of children during early adulthood is linked to whether and when women form stable unions over the course of their lives. We furthermore investigate whether this preference-behavior relationship varies across educational attainment and may be one missing link to understanding educational differentials in family formation behavior. First findings indeed show a significant relationship between these early desires and subsequent marriage behavior. Women who desire to remain childless marry less often, and significantly later than their counterparts who desire to become mothers.
	Bibliography Citation Nitsche, Natalie and Sarah R. Hayford. "The Impact of Early Fertility Desires on Union Formation and Timing." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

574.	Nonoyama, Atsuko Simpson, Pippa Gossett, Jeffrey M. Stokes, C. Shannon
574.	Maternal Employment in Early Childhood and the Risk of Overweight in Adolescence Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Health; Maternal Employment; Obesity; Weight; Work Hours/Schedule Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. During the years when childhood obesity increased, types of food consumed by children have also changed drastically due partly to a rise in employment among young mothers who had little time for shopping and cooking nutritious meals. Furthermore, the impact of maternal employment may have been larger in already disadvantaged populations. This study evaluates: 1) whether maternal employment in infancy and early childhood predicts being overweight in adolescence, and 2) whether the effect of maternal employment on adolescent obesity is more pronounced among low-income households. Data come from women in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and their children. Preliminary findings do not indicate that the number of hours mothers worked during the first five years of life predicts elevated risks of obesity at ages 15 or 16, and this finding holds regardless of the poverty status of the household.
	Bibliography Citation Nonoyama, Atsuko, Pippa Simpson, Jeffrey M. Gossett and C. Shannon Stokes. "Maternal Employment in Early Childhood and the Risk of Overweight in Adolescence." Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

575.	Noonan, Mary Christine
575.	A Cross-Cohort Analysis of the Effects of Parenthood on Employment for Women and Men Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2000 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Men, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Employment; Fatherhood; Maternal Employment; Motherhood; Parenthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979-1998, Young Women 1968-1983 and Young Men 1966-1981, this study examines the effect of parenthood on the paid employment of young men and women over time. In view of women's increased labor force attachment, recent cohorts of women may be less likely to interrupt their work lives (or at lest for a shorter period) after childbirth than later cohorts. Furthermore, as recent cohorts of men become more involved in family responsibilities and childcare, they may be more likely than later cohorts to reduce their time in the labor force in response to the demands of parenthood. In the first stage of the analysis, estimates are made to determine if employment responses to parenthood have been changing or remaining stable across time for both men and women. Next, decomposition analysis is performed to determine whether cohort differences are due to changes in the composition of cohorts or to behavioral changes across cohorts. Implications of the findings discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Noonan, Mary Christine. "A Cross-Cohort Analysis of the Effects of Parenthood on Employment for Women and Men." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2000.

576.	Noonan, Mary Christine
576.	How Much Does the Long Term Cost of a Work Interruption Influence Women's Employment Behavior Surrounding First Birth? Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2001 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Economic Changes/Recession; Employment; Maternal Employment; Mothers, Behavior; Mothers, Income; Re-employment; Wages, Women; Work Reentry Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Economic theory states that a woman will allocate time to employment only if the value of her time in the labor force exceeds the value she places on her time at home. Previous research examining women's employment behavior around the time of childbirth has measured the value of market time, or the cost of a work interruption, with current earnings. This measure is incomplete, however, because the cost of a work interruption involves more than simply the loss of current earnings. Future earnings will also be reduced as a result of a work interruption because of wage depreciation and forgone wage appreciation occurring during the interruption period. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, I create a measure of the long-term cost of an employment break for each woman into the sample, and then test whether it predicts a woman's employment behavior surrounding the first birth.
	Bibliography Citation Noonan, Mary Christine. "How Much Does the Long Term Cost of a Work Interruption Influence Women's Employment Behavior Surrounding First Birth?" Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2001.

577.	Noonan, Mary Christine Wang, Minglu
577.	Marriage Versus Employment: Comparing Antipoverty Strategies for Mothers Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, March-April 2006 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Marital Status; Maternal Employment; Mothers, Behavior; Mothers, Income; Poverty; Racial Differences; Re-employment; Wages, Women; Work Reentry Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In recent years, several studies have shown that married women are much less likely than are single women to live in poverty. Another body of research has shown that women's employment, not surprisingly, is also negatively related to poverty. However, little is known about the role of marriage compared to the role of labor force participation in alleviating poverty among women. This issue is important because current debates over welfare policy center on whether work participation requirements should be increased and/or whether the government should actively encourage marriage among low-income single mothers. We use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979-2002) to analyze the impact of transitions into and out of marriage and employment on the likelihood of being poor among a sample of women. Two separate models estimate the impact of marriage and employment on short-term poverty and long-term poverty. Also, models are estimated separately by race because of important racial differences in the labor market and marriage market.
	Bibliography Citation Noonan, Mary Christine and Minglu Wang. "Marriage Versus Employment: Comparing Antipoverty Strategies for Mothers." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, March-April 2006.

578.	Norberg, Karen
578.	Dads and Cads: Parental Cohabitation and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2003 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Formation; Family Structure; Gender; Parental Influences; Sex Ratios Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Evolutionary theory predicts that parents may bias the sex ratio of their offspring according to environmental conditions. Here, I test the prediction that parents may tend to produce males under conditions forecasting two-parent care, and females under conditions forecasting one-parent care. Using individual-level longitudinal data pooled from four public-use US surveys, I find that parents who were living with an opposite-sex partner or spouse were more likely to have a male child than parents who were living apart. The effect is small, but statistically significant (p < .0001). It is discernable when comparisons are made among sibling within the same family (OR 1.17, p
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen. "Dads and Cads: Parental Cohabitation and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth." Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2003.

579.	Ono, Hiromi
579.	Parental Unions, Financial Transfers, and School Enrollment among Adolescents Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children, Well-Being; Family Studies; Marriage; Parental Marital Status; Transfers, Financial Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. How "family diversity" affects children's well-being remains poorly understood. Proponents of some economic and evolutionary theories note that a parent composition that includes a step-parent is the source of the disadvantage because step-parents invest less in children than do biological parents and their investments yield smaller returns in child well-being. In contrast, proponents of a structural theory of the family suggest that parental union type (i.e., unions other than first marriage) rather than parent composition/type is the source. In this paper, I test two primary competing hypotheses with the first three waves of the National Longitudinal Survey of the Youth, 1997-2001: a) biological parents transfer more money and their transfers are more beneficial to children's academic well-being; and b) differentials do not exist by parent type, but exist by parental union type.
	Bibliography Citation Ono, Hiromi. "Parental Unions, Financial Transfers, and School Enrollment among Adolescents." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

580.	Opitz, Wolfgang
580.	Impacts of Welfare Receipt and Family Disruption on Children Presented: Baltimore, MD, Population Association of America Meetings, 1989 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC); Behavioral Problems; Child Development; Children; Marital Disruption; Mothers; Motor and Social Development (MSD); Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This working paper uses data on mothers and children from the NLSY and 1986 child assessments to examine the impact of welfare receipt on child development. Specifically examined is the relationship of AFDC histories to: (1) the relationship of motor and social development scores of children aged 3 and 4; and (2) reported behavior problems of children aged 4 and older. It was found that, for children ages 3 and 4, motor and social development scores are higher among children who had continuous welfare histories than are scores among children who had discontinuous histories. Statistically significant greater behavior problems are observed among children with discontinuous AFDC histories compared with children with either no AFDC or continuous AFDC history. Plans for future research are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Opitz, Wolfgang. "Impacts of Welfare Receipt and Family Disruption on Children." Presented: Baltimore, MD, Population Association of America Meetings, 1989.

581.	Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincaid Kalmijn, Matthijs Lim, Nelson Lew, Vivian
581.	Men's Career Development and Marriage Timing: Race and Schooling Differences Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Earnings; Educational Returns; Event History; Job Analysis; Marriage; Racial Differences; Schooling; Work Experience Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Based upon data from 1979-1990 NLSY interviews, this study investigates how the ease or difficulty of young men's transition to a mature working life affects first-marriage timing. We develop measures of career "maturity" and of current as well as long-term earnings position and, employing discrete-time event-history methods, show that these have a substantial impact on marriage formation for both blacks and whites. Using our regression results, we then estimate cumulative proportions ever-married under two career-entry scenarios: a "difficult" vs. an "easier" career-entry process. We find major differences in the pace of marriage formation, depending on the difficulty of the career transition. We also find considerable differences in these marriage timing patterns across race-schooling groups, corresponding to the large observed differences m the speed and difficulty of career transitions among these groups. In conclusion, we argue that studying men's career-entry process can make an important contribution to understanding trends and differentials in marriage timing.
	Bibliography Citation Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincaid, Matthijs Kalmijn, Nelson Lim and Vivian Lew. "Men's Career Development and Marriage Timing: Race and Schooling Differences." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

582.	Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincaid Lewin, Alisa
582.	Race and the Role of Economic Independence in Women's Marriage Formation Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC); Economic Independence; Economics of Gender; Event History; Heterogeneity; Labor Market Demographics; Marriage; Racial Differences; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using a discrete-time event history methodology on the 1979-1990 panel of black and non-Hispanic white women from the NLSY we examine the hypothesis that the desirability of marriage is less for women with economic alternatives to marriage. First we investigate whether women in a better potential and actual labor-market position are less likely to marry. Then the paper goes on to analyze the role of welfare in marriage behavior, focusing on black women. We describe the heterogeneous nature of the cohorts' AFDC experience over the years and our event history analysis then explores the implications of this for marriage formation. We go on to examine the confounding of the effects of AFDC dependency and labor-market position. Finally, the paper investigates how attractive the marital.
	Bibliography Citation Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincaid and Alisa Lewin. "Race and the Role of Economic Independence in Women's Marriage Formation." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

583.	Owens, Jayanti
583.	Changes in American Families and the Growth in the Gender Gap in Early Childhood Behavioral Skills Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Attention/Attention Deficit; Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Cohabitation; Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-B, ECLS-K); Gender Differences; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Parental Influences; Parental Marital Status; Parents, Behavior; Parents, Single; Sociability/Socialization/Social Interaction; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Attention, concentration, and social skills are important indicators of school readiness. Boys have long fallen behind girls in the development of these skills, but prior research has not examined whether changes in American families—namely, the rise of cohabitation and single parenting from birth, as well as the presence of a social as opposed to biological father beginning in early childhood—are associated with a growth in the gender gap in behavioral skills. This study uses two national datasets of children followed from birth to age 6 to examine how changes in family structures, parental conflict, economic resources, parenting, and child health are associated with the gender gap in behavioral development. The study finds that the gender gap in behavioral development has grown between the late 1980s and the mid-2000s, and that changes in families explain much of the growth. Implications for the gender gap in later achievement and delinquency are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Owens, Jayanti. "Changes in American Families and the Growth in the Gender Gap in Early Childhood Behavioral Skills." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

584.	Owens, Jayanti
584.	Coloring the "Boys Will Be Boys" Chronicle: Race, Gender, and Behavior Problems across Two Decades Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Attention/Attention Deficit; Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-B, ECLS-K); Family Structure; Gender Differences; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Racial Differences; Scale Construction Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. ADHD diagnoses and school suspensions have increased ten- and two-fold in the U.S. since the 1970s, with African-American boys' higher baseline levels ballooning into the largest gender gaps over the past three decades. Despite implications for black boys' growing educational and economic disadvantage, neither the extent nor the origins of their growing disadvantage are understood. This study leverages consistent behavioral scales from two nationally-representative datasets to document mothers' reports of African-American boys' worsening behavior problems among even the "best-behaved" black boys -- not just among those with the highest levels of behavior problems. Neither gender differences in exposure nor response to salient, racially-patterned changes in families and health explain black boys’ growing disadvantage. Findings carry significant consequences for black males' future rates of delinquency, school drop-out, unemployment, and incarceration, which may result from heightened scrutiny and policing of even the best-behaved black boys' behaviors beginning in early childhood. Note: Also presented at Dublin, Ireland, Society for Longitudinal and Life Course Studies (SLLS) International Conference, October 2015
	Bibliography Citation Owens, Jayanti. "Coloring the "Boys Will Be Boys" Chronicle: Race, Gender, and Behavior Problems across Two Decades." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

585.	Owens, Jayanti
585.	Early Childhood Behavioral Skills and the Gender Reversal in Educational Attainment in the United States: A New Perspective Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Attention/Attention Deficit; College Education; College Enrollment; College Graduates; Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-B, ECLS-K); Educational Attainment; Gender Differences; High School Completion/Graduates; Role Models; Sociability/Socialization/Social Interaction Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The gender reversal in high school completion, college enrollment, and college completion represents one of the most salient demographic shifts in the United States in recent decades. Prior research highlights women’s increased incentives for college via increased returns in the labor market. This study proposes and tests a new and complementary perspective on the gender reversal: the gender gap in early childhood behavioral skills. By age 5, boys lag behind girls in terms of attention, concentration, and social skills. Using two national datasets of children sampled approximately 15 years apart, I propose—and find support for—the hypothesis that the gender gap in behavior has grown over time, as many boys have lost their primary male role model due to changes in American families. Linking this growing behavioral gap to educational attainment, I find that the gap in behavioral skills explains a notable share of the reversal in educational attainment.
	Bibliography Citation Owens, Jayanti. "Early Childhood Behavioral Skills and the Gender Reversal in Educational Attainment in the United States: A New Perspective." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

586.	Owens, Jayanti
586.	Habits That Make, Habits That Break: Early Childhood Behavior Problems and the Gender Gap in Education in the United States Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Attention/Attention Deficit; Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Educational Attainment; Gender Differences; Sociability/Socialization/Social Interaction Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Over the past three decades, females in the United States have comprised a growing majority of high school and college graduates. An understudied explanation for this female attainment advantage is females' lower levels of self-regulation problems and social problems. With macro-level social shifts, including gender parity in parental investments in children and the opening of the labor market for women, males' long-standing behavioral disadvantage in childhood may now translate into lower levels of educational attainment compared to females. Using newly-available, prospective panel data on a national sample of children followed from birth in the 1980's through much of their twenties, results show that the life-course origins of today's female advantage in attainment trace back to females' lower levels of early childhood behavior problems. Early behavior problems shape and are shaped by educational achievement and social context but pathways differ for males and females, as does the timing of educational transitions.
	Bibliography Citation Owens, Jayanti. "Habits That Make, Habits That Break: Early Childhood Behavior Problems and the Gender Gap in Education in the United States." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

587.	Owens, Jayanti
587.	Social Class, Gender, and Children's Behavior Problems across Two Decades Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Attention/Attention Deficit; Family Influences; Gender Differences; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Prevalence of diagnosed childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has increased seven-fold in the U.S. since 1987, with a growing absolute gap between boys and girls. Prevalence of clinical levels of ADHD symptoms is most over-represented among low-SES boys. It is unclear whether rising prevalence reflects true changes in underlying symptoms. Using two national samples of children across two decades, this study finds that the gender gap in ADHD-linked behaviors has emerged even between the low-SES (but not high-SES) children with the lowest behavior problems. A large portion of the growing gap among the worst-behaved low- and high-SES children is explained by family and health shifts. Strikingly, almost none of the growing gender gap among the best-behaved low-SES children is explained by family and health shifts. Findings suggest the growing gap among low-income children's behavior problems is related to changing perceptions of behaviors for this well-behaved segment of low-SES boys.
	Bibliography Citation Owens, Jayanti. "Social Class, Gender, and Children's Behavior Problems across Two Decades." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

588.	Owens, Jayanti Jackson, Heide Forgues, Angela
588.	The Changing Effects of an Early Childhood Attention Deficity/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Diagnosis on Cognitive Development for Cohorts of Children Born across Three Decades Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Attention/Attention Deficit; Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Care; Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-B, ECLS-K); Family Structure; Gender Differences; Insurance, Health; Mothers, Education; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study investigates how the effect of ADHD diagnosis on cognitive development has changed for children born in the early 2000s compared to those born in the early 1980s and whether the mechanisms linking diagnosis to cognition have changed for these birth cohorts. Using nationally-representative samples of youth surveyed in the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979-Children (NLSY-C), the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten 1998 Study (ECLS-K 98), and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten 2011 (ECLS-K:2011), we employ OLS regression and matching techniques to test whether the effect of ADHD diagnosis in kindergarten or first grade on third grade cognition scores has changed across cohorts and whether the mechanisms linking ADHD diagnosis to cognition have shifted. Preliminary results indicate that the effect of ADHD diagnosis for subsequent cognition has declined across cohorts. Future analyses will explore whether and which mediating factors linking ADHD diagnosis to subsequent cognitive development have also shifted.
	Bibliography Citation Owens, Jayanti, Heide Jackson and Angela Forgues. "The Changing Effects of an Early Childhood Attention Deficity/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Diagnosis on Cognitive Development for Cohorts of Children Born across Three Decades." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

589.	Owens, Jayanti Kehal, Prabhdeep
589.	Who Gets to Walk the Straight Line? Racial Differences in Boys' and Girls' Acting Out and the Accumulation of Structural Privilege/Disadvantage in School Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Educational Attainment; Gender Differences; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although much important research examines the policing of behaviors of adolescent males of color, behavior policing and hyper criminalization, driven by negative stereotyping, start much earlier. We examine whether the same levels of early childhood behavior problems are differentially linked to educational fortunes by intersecting student race-gender identity. We then investigate how differential interactions and treatment within key social institutions of childhood by child race and gender help explain why this might be. We use the latest releases of the NLSY: 1979 Children, which follow a diverse sample of children from birth in the early-to-mid 1980s all the way to their late 20s and early 30s in 2014. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that, for White boys, early behavior problems uniquely predict adult schooling completed. We hypothesize that this reflects a form of privilege conferred uniquely to White males by virtue of their ability to "control their own destinies."
	Bibliography Citation Owens, Jayanti and Prabhdeep Kehal. "Who Gets to Walk the Straight Line? Racial Differences in Boys' and Girls' Acting Out and the Accumulation of Structural Privilege/Disadvantage in School." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

590.	Paek, Eunjeong
590.	Long Work Hours and the Effect of Motherhood on Earnings Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Maternal Employment; Motherhood; Wage Penalty/Career Penalty; Work Hours/Schedule Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Studies have found that working long hours can play an important role in gender inequality, but the impact of working long hours on the motherhood penalty remains largely unknown. This study examines whether working long hours alters the motherhood penalty. On the one hand, overwork could have a protective effect on mothers' earnings by signaling work commitment or increasing the autonomy to reduce unpaid work. On the other hand, overwork could exacerbate the motherhood penalty by intensifying work-family conflict or introducing normative discrimination. The author uses the data from the NLSY to model the earnings penalty. The results support that among white women, mothers who work long hours have a lower penalty than full-time workers. Once controlling for human capital and work effort, however, working long hours loses its protective effect. The findings suggest that overwork itself may not be protective, but mothers who work long hours may experience the smaller penalty because of positive selection.
	Bibliography Citation Paek, Eunjeong. "Long Work Hours and the Effect of Motherhood on Earnings." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

591.	Painter, Matthew A. II Shafer, Kevin M.
591.	Children, Family Size Change, and Household Wealth Trajectories Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=70861 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Ethnic Differences; Family Size; Hispanics; Life Course; Modeling, Growth Curve/Latent Trajectory Analysis; Racial Differences; Transition, Adulthood; Wealth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Wealth inequality continues to play an increasingly important role in the overall American stratification picture. Previous research tends to examine early childhood and adolescent processes that influence adult wealth accumulation to the exclusion of influential adult life course effects. One important aspect of adulthood is having children and the transition to parenthood, which can affect numerous outcomes, including wealth trajectories. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979 cohort (NLSY79), and latent-growth curve modeling techniques, we look at the direct effect of family size on wealth and at potential family-size threshold effects in wealth accumulation. Furthermore, we assess racial and ethnic differences between Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics in the effect of family size on wealth. Finally, we disaggregate net worth into its two component parts, financial and non-fungible wealth in order to evaluate the effect of family size and family change on each resource pool.
	Bibliography Citation Painter, Matthew A. II and Kevin M. Shafer. "Children, Family Size Change, and Household Wealth Trajectories." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

592.	Palloni, Alberto Ceballos, Miguel Spittel, Mike
592.	Using Couple Models to Investigate the Determinants of Adult Mortality Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1999 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Assets; Education; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Mortality; Occupational Status; Pairs (also see Siblings); Variables, Independent - Covariate; Widows Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper develops and applies models for the multivariate analysis of survival processes when observations are naturally paired. These models include bivariate survival models, paired failure models, and multistate hazard models. These models offer alternative ways of estimating effects of covariates on survival within pairs while controlling for unobserved factors shared by members of the pair. We apply these models to the assessment of socioeconomic differentials of mortality of husbands and wives in the US using the latest release version of the National Longitudinal Survey of Men. The models enable us to estimate common, cross-spouse, and within-couple effects of education, occupational status, assets and other socioeconomic determinants as well as the impact of bereavement and widowing effects.
	Bibliography Citation Palloni, Alberto, Miguel Ceballos and Mike Spittel. "Using Couple Models to Investigate the Determinants of Adult Mortality." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1999.

593.	Panis, Constantijn W. A. Lillard, Lee A. Upchurch, Dawn M.
593.	Implications of Family Formation for Educational Attainment Among Young Women Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Education Indicators; Educational Attainment; Event History; Fertility; Marriage; Methods/Methodology; Modeling; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; School Completion; Schooling; Women's Education Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper analyzes educational choices made by young women in the United States. The focus is on the consequences of family formation outcomes (fertility and marriage) for schooling decisions. In order to address the issue of selectivity among women who bear children and/or get married while in school, we develop a model in which schooling, fertility, and marriage decisions are considered jointly. The empirical model of schooling explicitly recognizes that decisions to proceed in school are taken sequentially, over time. We use the precise timing of events in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to determine the effects on schooling continuation decisions. The relative timing of pregnancies, marriage dates, and graduation dates are used to gain insight into the directions of causality and the magnitude of the effects.
	Bibliography Citation Panis, Constantijn W. A., Lee A. Lillard and Dawn M. Upchurch. "Implications of Family Formation for Educational Attainment Among Young Women." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

594.	Papps, Kerry Liam
594.	Effects of Divorce Risk on the Labour Supply of Married Couples Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=70935 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Divorce; Life Cycle Research; Marital Status; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Work Hours/Schedule Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper presents a model of lifetime utility maximization in which expectations of future marital transitions play a role in the determination of work hours. Married people with spouses who earn more are predicted to devote additional time to the labour market when they are confronted with a high likelihood of divorce and vice versa. Similarly, work hours should be positively associated with marriage probability for single people who expect to marry a higher earning spouse. These predictions are tested using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Marriage and divorce probabilities are calculated from proportional hazard models and are included in regressions of annual hours. Married women are found to work more when they face a high divorce probability. This relationship holds both over an individual's life-cycle and across people with different inherent risks of divorce and is robust to the use of alternative marital transition measures.
	Bibliography Citation Papps, Kerry Liam. "Effects of Divorce Risk on the Labour Supply of Married Couples." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

595.	Park, Sung S.
595.	Changing Times and Places: First Home-Leaving Among Late Baby Boomers and Early Millennials During the Transition to Adulthood Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Coresidence; Family Background and Culture; Residence, Return to Parental Home/Delayed Homeleaving; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper seeks to understand how and why intergenerational coresidence between young adults and their parents has changed in the last 35 years. While it is well-known that homeleaving among "Millennials" is delayed, few studies have conducted a cross-cohort analysis using longitudinal data to examine the dynamics of homeleaving over historical time, assessing the importance of not only individual demographic and socioeconomic traits, as well as family background, but also contextual variables associated with youths' geographic location. Using the NLSY79 and the NLSY97, I study the timing and routes of first homeleaving for late Baby Boomers (1961-1964) and early Millennials (1980-1984). [Also presented at Montreal, QC, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2017]
	Bibliography Citation Park, Sung S. "Changing Times and Places: First Home-Leaving Among Late Baby Boomers and Early Millennials During the Transition to Adulthood." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

596.	Park, Sung S.
596.	Examining Homeleaving Processes during the Transition to Adulthood Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Residence; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Homeleaving during the transition to adulthood is a complex process which can be attributed to both residential and economic autonomy. Using the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth, I study the correlates associated first homeleaving. By examining the homeleaving experiences of different cohorts, I consider how changes to individual and family characteristics as well as structural or economic opportunities and constraints explain the timing and route of leaving the parental nest.
	Bibliography Citation Park, Sung S. "Examining Homeleaving Processes during the Transition to Adulthood." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

597.	Patel, Diane B. Lynch, Jamie L. Mott, Frank L.
597.	Good Parenting: Do Younger Parents Learn from Their Mothers? Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=71422 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Health; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mothers, Behavior; Transfers, Parental Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In ongoing research, we are utilizing a unique data set, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979 cohort) and their Young Adult children, to explore cross generational connections in the propensity of young men and women at adolescent and young adult ages to follow parenting practices evidenced by their mothers a generation earlier. Our particular focus will be to contrast their mother's child-raising behaviors (NLSY79) for their children in the 1980s with how these young women and men (NLSY Young Adults) are currently raising the children in their households, as evidenced using the HOME scale (Caldwell and Bradley 1984). In addition to describing these cross generational connections, we will focus on the extent to which these connections may retain their independence in a multivariate context after controlling for a wide range of factors available in the data set that might be considered to be independently linked with parenting behaviors.
	Bibliography Citation Patel, Diane B., Jamie L. Lynch and Frank L. Mott. "Good Parenting: Do Younger Parents Learn from Their Mothers?" Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

598.	Pearce-Morris, Jennifer
598.	Cohabitors' Unfulfilled Marital Expectations and Mental Health Outcomes during the Transition to Adulthood Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Expectations/Intentions; Health, Mental/Psychological Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (N=1,457) the current study examined whether cohabitors' unfulfilled marital expectations are associated with poor mental health outcomes. The vast majority of cohabitors at time one held expectations for marriage that could be distinctly classified into categories of low, medium, and high level expectations. Among those who had high-level expectations for getting married within the next year, cohabitation dissolution was associated with worse mental health one year later compared to entering marriage or remaining cohabiting, with the difference in mental health between cohabitors who broke up and cohabitors who married particularly strong. Differences in mental health by future union status were also present among cohabitors with low-level marital expectations. Results from the current study highlight the juxtaposition of the increased presence of cohabitation in young adults' courtship with the continued presence of marital ideals in U.S. culture.
	Bibliography Citation Pearce-Morris, Jennifer. "Cohabitors' Unfulfilled Marital Expectations and Mental Health Outcomes during the Transition to Adulthood." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

599.	Pearce, Lisa D. Davis, Shannon N.
599.	Religion, Work-Family Gender Ideology, and Fertility Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America (PAA) Annual Meetings, March-April 2006 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Family Formation; Fertility; Gender Differences; Religion; Religious Influences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Given evidence suggesting (1) that religiosity and work-family gender ideology are related to childbearing; and (2) variance in religious institutions' promotion of gendered patterns of family organization, this paper explores whether work-family gender ideology is a mechanism through which religious affiliation and/or practice influences childbearing. Using NLSY79 data, we evaluate how childhood religious affiliation, adult religious service attendance, and attitudes towards gendered family roles relate to the hazard of first premarital and marital births. We find that work-family gender ideologies somewhat mediate the elevated risk of a premarital birth for those raised Evangelical Protestant but not the negative relationship between religious service attendance and the risk of a premarital birth. Work-family gender ideology is negatively related to timing of first marital birth and does not mediate observed religion-fertility relationships. Our findings further elucidate relationships between religion and family formation and how attitudes toward gendered family organization might factor in the process.
	Bibliography Citation Pearce, Lisa D. and Shannon N. Davis. "Religion, Work-Family Gender Ideology, and Fertility." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America (PAA) Annual Meetings, March-April 2006.

600.	Pearson, Katherine
600.	Those Who Pay and Those Who Don’t: The Role of Family Support in Protecting Young Adults from Student Loan Debt Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Cost; Debt/Borrowing; Family Resources; Financial Assistance; Racial Differences; Student Loans / Student Aid; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Student loan debt represents a growing burden facing students today as they transition to adulthood. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997, I investigate ways in which parents use their resources to protect their children from accumulating debt. Preliminary results suggest that receiving financial support from family substantially reduces the total amount of government and private loans that students take out, and that the size of this protective effect differs by the type of family support: gifts have a bigger negative effect on government and private loan debt than loans from family. I also find substantial racial differences in the effect of family support: receiving financial support from family has a larger protective effect for whites than for Hispanics or blacks. These results indicate that family plays a protective role in shielding young adults from debt, but that this protection is not equally available to all students.
	Bibliography Citation Pearson, Katherine. "Those Who Pay and Those Who Don’t: The Role of Family Support in Protecting Young Adults from Student Loan Debt." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

601.	Penner, Anna
601.	Risk Behaviors Among Children and Youth Who Have a Sibling With a Disability Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior; Contraception; Disability; Risk-Taking; Siblings; Substance Use Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Utilizing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Children and Young Adults, this paper examines risk behaviors among children (ages 10-14) and youth (15 and older) who have had a sibling with a disability (SWD). Current estimates maintain that one in eight American families have a child with a disability, suggesting that a significant portion of our children have a SWD, and yet little research examines their experiences using nationally representative data. I investigate whether respondents with SWDs engage in risk behaviors more than those whose siblings are not disabled. I find that, on average, the reports are similar, and if anything respondents with a SWD engage in more risk behaviors, not fewer. In particular, contraceptive use is lower among youth with a SWD and physical harm to others is higher among children with a SWD.
	Bibliography Citation Penner, Anna. "Risk Behaviors Among Children and Youth Who Have a Sibling With a Disability." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

602.	Penner, Anna
602.	The Effect of Having a Disabled Sibling at Various Ages on Educational Attainment Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Disability; Educational Attainment; Educational Outcomes; Gender Differences; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper utilizes data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Children and Young Adults to examine the educational attainment of young adults who had a disabled sibling during childhood. Building on child development literature, I consider various ages when having a disabled sibling may be particularly deleterious. Over all I find that respondents who had a disabled sibling as a child complete half a year less schooling and have substantially lower odds of graduating from high school than their peers who did not have a disabled sibling. Further, there are some ages when having a disabled sibling has a greater effect on educational outcomes. These effects are driven almost entirely by the costs of having a disabled sibling for women: men experience little or no penalty for having a disabled sibling, while women with disabled siblings average half a year less education than women without disabled siblings.
	Bibliography Citation Penner, Anna. "The Effect of Having a Disabled Sibling at Various Ages on Educational Attainment." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

603.	Penner, Anna
603.	The Effects of Having a Disabled Sibling during Childhood on Young Adults’ Educational Attainment Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Health; Disability; Educational Attainment; Health, Chronic Conditions; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper utilizes secondary data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Children and Young Adults (CNLSY) to examine educational attainment among young adults who had a disabled sibling during childhood by measuring high school completion and number of years of education achieved. I also examine the gender differences in these outcomes. This study builds on previous research regarding disability effects and offers an additional view on sibling effects in general. I find that on average, respondents who had a disabled sibling complete half a year less schooling and have substantially lower odds of graduating from high school than their peers who did not have a disabled sibling. The gap in educational attainment is particularly important to consider in light of policies that should be implemented to avoid unnecessary loss in educational attainment, particularly in light of further cuts that may be made in this time of financial austerity.
	Bibliography Citation Penner, Anna. "The Effects of Having a Disabled Sibling during Childhood on Young Adults’ Educational Attainment." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

604.	Percheski, Christine Jao, Yu-Han
604.	Cohort Change in Family Formation Patterns in the United States: Evidence from NLSY79 and NLSY97 Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Formation; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Parenthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. McLanahan (2004) and others have argued that the diffusion of family formation behaviors associated with the Second Demographic Transition (SDT) has been patterned by social inequality, creating divergent family trajectories for women of different social class backgrounds. In this paper, we investigate whether there have been cohort changes in how predictive natal family and personal characteristics are of family formation pathways among two recent birth cohorts of women, 1957-64 and 1980-84. Using longitudinal data from NLSY79 and NSLY97, we find substantial declines across cohorts in the share of the population following the "traditional" pathway of early marriage and marital parenthood and increases in the share following single parenthood and delayed parenthood pathways. We find that the natal family and personal characteristics that predict each pathway did not change much across cohorts for non-Hispanic whites but that there were notable changes for Hispanic and non-Hispanic black women.
	Bibliography Citation Percheski, Christine and Yu-Han Jao. "Cohort Change in Family Formation Patterns in the United States: Evidence from NLSY79 and NLSY97." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

605.	Perelli-Harris, Brienna Styrc, Marta Addo, Fenaba Lappegard, Trude Sassler, Sharon Evans, Ann
605.	Comparing the Benefits of Cohabitation and Marriage for Health and Happiness in Mid-Life: Is the Relationship Similar Across Countries? Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Australia, Australian; British Cohort Study (BCS); Cohabitation; Cross-national Analysis; Happiness (see Positive Affect/Optimism); Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Life Satisfaction; Marriage; Norway, Norwegian Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Previous research has found that marriage conveys benefits to individuals, but with recent increases in cohabitation, it is no longer clear that marriage per se matters, compared to living in a co-residential partnership. This association is especially unclear in countries where cohabitation is becoming widespread, such as Australia, the UK, the US, and Norway. Here we compare differences between married and cohabiting people with respect to self-rated health and life satisfaction in mid-life. Our surveys - the Australian HILDA, Norwegian GGS, UK BCS70 and US NLSY - include a mix of longitudinal and retrospective questions, allowing us to match individuals on socio-economic background and childhood family structure. Using Propensity Score Matching, we examine current partnership type and long-term cohabiting unions vs. long-term marriages. Preliminary results show that marriage is positively associated with health and happiness in countries where cohabitation is less regulated and more selective of childhood disadvantage.
	Bibliography Citation Perelli-Harris, Brienna, Marta Styrc, Fenaba Addo, Trude Lappegard, Sharon Sassler and Ann Evans. "Comparing the Benefits of Cohabitation and Marriage for Health and Happiness in Mid-Life: Is the Relationship Similar Across Countries?" Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

606.	Perelli-Harris, Brienna Styrc, Marta Addo, Fenaba Lappegard, Trude Sassler, Sharon Evans, Ann
606.	Comparing the Benefits of Cohabitation and Marriage for Health and Happiness in Mid-Life: Is the Relationship Similar Across Countries? Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Australia, Australian; British Cohort Study (BCS); Cohabitation; Cross-national Analysis; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Life Satisfaction; Marriage; Norway, Norwegian; Propensity Scores Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Previous research has found that marriage conveys benefits to individuals, but with recent increases in cohabitation, it is no longer clear that marriage per se matters, compared to living in a co-residential partnership. This association is especially unclear in countries where cohabitation is becoming widespread, such as Australia, the UK, the US, and Norway. Here we compare differences between married and cohabiting people with respect to self-rated health and life satisfaction in mid-life. Our surveys - the Australian HILDA, Norwegian GGS, UK BCS70 and US NLSY - include a mix of longitudinal and retrospective questions, allowing us to match individuals on socio-economic background and childhood family structure. Using Propensity Score Matching, we examine current partnership type and long-term cohabiting unions vs. long-term marriages. Preliminary results show that marriage is positively associated with health and happiness in countries where cohabitation is less regulated and more selective of childhood disadvantage.
	Bibliography Citation Perelli-Harris, Brienna, Marta Styrc, Fenaba Addo, Trude Lappegard, Sharon Sassler and Ann Evans. "Comparing the Benefits of Cohabitation and Marriage for Health and Happiness in Mid-Life: Is the Relationship Similar Across Countries?" Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

607.	Pessin, Lee Damaske, Sarah Frech, Adrianne
607.	How Race and Class Shape Women's Work and Family Lives From Early Adulthood to Midlife Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Influences; Family Size; Labor Force Participation; Marital Status; Racial Differences; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Cumulative individual patterns of employment and family transitions have long lasting consequences for women's later-life financial security and health. Yet, despite an established consensus that race and class predict different patterns of either work or family, little is known about how these predictors jointly intersect in influencing women's work-family trajectories. In this article, we study how race and class shape the interrelationship between labor force attachment and family events -- number of children and partnership status -- during women's life courses, from early adulthood to midlife. We apply multichannel sequence analysis to data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) to examine longitudinal work-family trajectories for Black, Hispanic, and white women between the ages of 18 to 45. By revealing distinctive features of the work-family interplay, our analysis highlights the joint roles of race and class in shaping women's work and family decisions.
	Bibliography Citation Pessin, Lee, Sarah Damaske and Adrianne Frech. "How Race and Class Shape Women's Work and Family Lives From Early Adulthood to Midlife." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

608.	Peters, H. Elizabeth Sabia, Joseph J. Price, Joseph P. Covington, Reginald
608.	The Effects of Teen and Early Fatherhood on Educational Attainment and Labor Market Outcomes Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing, Adolescent; Educational Attainment; Fatherhood; Gender Differences; Labor Market Outcomes; National Education Longitudinal Survey (NELS); Pregnancy, Adolescent; Teenagers Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. A report from the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy concluded that the public cost of teen births reached $9.1 billion in 2004. Much of the literature on the consequences of teen childbearing has focused on women, although the size of the effects varies widely depending on the techniques used to control for endogeneity. Despite the fact that men's role in fertility is receiving increasing attention, very little work estimates the consequences of early fatherhood. In this paper, we estimate the schooling and labor market consequences for men, using many of the same empirical techniques that have been used for women. We compare the consequences for men and women across three different data sets, the 1979 and 1997 cohorts of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and the 1988 National Educational Longitudinal Survey, which enable us to analyze changes in the effect of teen parenthood over time.
	Bibliography Citation Peters, H. Elizabeth, Joseph J. Sabia, Joseph P. Price and Reginald Covington. "The Effects of Teen and Early Fatherhood on Educational Attainment and Labor Market Outcomes." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

609.	Petts, Richard James
609.	Miscarriage, Religious Participation, and Mental Health Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Health, Mental/Psychological; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Religion Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Approximately 15-20% of pregnancies result in miscarriage, yet pregnancy loss remains a socially taboo topic and one that has received only limited attention in the literature. Utilizing nationally representative longitudinal data from the NLSY97, this study examines the influence of miscarriage on mental health and whether this relationship is moderated by religious participation. Results from this study suggest that miscarriage is associated with lower mental health among women who also experience a live birth. Results also suggest that religious participation moderates the relationship between miscarriage and mental health; religion is more likely to lead to increases in mental health among women who experience a miscarriage than among women who do not experience a miscarriage. Overall, evidence suggests that religion may be an important coping mechanism for women who deal with pregnancy loss.
	Bibliography Citation Petts, Richard James. "Miscarriage, Religious Participation, and Mental Health." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

610.	Phang, Hanam S.
610.	Labor Market Transitions of Young Women Over the Early Life Course: Age Pattern, Life Cycle Variation, and Racial Differences Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing, Adolescent; Education, Secondary; Employment History; Labor Force Participation; Labor Market Demographics; Life Course; Life Cycle Research; Racial Differences; Simultaneity; Transitional Programs; Women's Education; Women's Studies Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using detailed panel data (i.e., NLSY 1979-1991), we examine the dynamic process of labor market transitions for young women during their young adulthood. Transitions between the states of the labor force are analyzed using multistate life tables, in which labor market and family transitions are estimated simultaneously. We find that black women in the aggregate are less likely to be employed (or in the A labor force) and more likely to be nonemployed than white women during early adulthood (i.e., at ages 16-34). With first childbirth controlled, black women, as expected from past observations, are in the labor force in a slightly higher proportion than white women during the same age period. But, we find that the proportion employed is actually lower among blacks than among whites due to blacks' higher proportion unemployed. Even though, the racial differential in employment decreases with age among women with more than high school education, it persists among women with high school or less education. By estimating the conditional probabilities of transition between the states of the labor force, this study shows that the major component of the racial differential in employment (or in nonemployment) is in the process of entering rather than exiting employment: black women, even if in 1? the labor force, are less likely employed and, if unemployed, more likely to withdraw from the labor force than their white counterparts. As a result, black women spend considerably more time nonemployed and less time employed than white women over the early life course.
	Bibliography Citation Phang, Hanam S. "Labor Market Transitions of Young Women Over the Early Life Course: Age Pattern, Life Cycle Variation, and Racial Differences." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

611.	Pirog, Maureen Jung, Haeil
611.	The Changing Composition of Young Fathers and the Effects of Early Fathering on Education and Labor Market Outcomes Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Education; Fatherhood; Labor Market Outcomes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This article examines differences in the composition of teen (up to age 19) and young (ages 20-24) fathers using the 1979 and 1997 panels of the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth (NLSY). To make a valid comparison between two generations, we compare three cohorts (born between 1962 and 1964) from the 1979 NLSY with three cohorts (born between 1980 and 1982) from the 1997 panel of NLSY. Respondents were 15 to 17 years of age when they responded to the first survey in both panels. Initial estimates indicate that reports by teen males of fathering children are more common in the 1997 panel than in the 1979 panel, and that early fathering has likely moved from seriously disadvantaged backgrounds into the social mainstream. Using regression models, we also examine the changing impacts of teen fatherhood on education and labor market outcomes at age 25.
	Bibliography Citation Pirog, Maureen and Haeil Jung. "The Changing Composition of Young Fathers and the Effects of Early Fathering on Education and Labor Market Outcomes." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

612.	Pitt, Mark
612.	A Simple Correction for Fertility Selection Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2003 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Birthweight; Child Health; Data Analysis; Fertility; Modeling, Logit; Modeling, Probit; Monte Carlo; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Statistical Analysis; Variables, Independent - Covariate Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper sets out some methods for controlling and testing for fertility selection that are extremely easy to use and can be simply implemented without any knowledge of programming using only a half-dozen lines of code in standard software packages such as Stata or SPSS. These methods require that a random effects structure for regression errors as in Pitt (1997). One method is essentially a two-step estimator of Pitt's 1997 random effects selection model.. In the first step of this procedure a selection correction term (as in Heckman's two-step method) is calculated that does not rely on a distributional assumption to achieve parameter identification in the second stage. In particular, this paper demonstrates that successive Taylor series approximations of the woman-specific random effect can be easily calculated based simply on the parameters of a simple binary probit (or logit) model of fertility, and the actual fertility outcomes observed for each woman. As the number of potential births (time periods) gets large, this estimator converges to the true random effect. In practice, simulation experiments demonstrate the efficacy of this approach even for samples of women still early in the reproductive lives, and the substantially higher precision obtained as compared to the application of Heckman's two-step (or maximum likelihood) inverse Mill's ratio approach that does not make use of the panel nature of reproductive histories. Adding these estimated random effects as an independent variable in subsequent regressions of the determinants of child health (or schooling or other behaviors), controls for fertility selection. The paper provides simulation (Monte Carlo) results demonstrating the efficacy of this two-step method, compares it to Heckman's method, extends it to models with nonnormal errors and state dependence (lagged dependent variables), and presents results of its application to the determination of various measures of child health and cognitive achievement using the NLSY data set.
	Bibliography Citation Pitt, Mark. "A Simple Correction for Fertility Selection." Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2003.

613.	Plotnick, Robert D.
613.	Determinants of Teenage Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1988 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Abortion; Adolescent Fertility; Childbearing; Family Planning; Fathers, Absence; Fertility; Household Composition; Marital Status; Teenagers Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study provides new evidence on the causes of teenage out-of-wedlock childbearing. It uses the NLSY to follow the fertility and marital history of young teenage girls. Personal and family background characteristics in this data set are merged with state data on welfare policy, on abortion and family planning policies and service availability, and on the socio-economic environment. Discrete time hazard models and cross-section logit models are used to assess the effects of a wide set of explanatory variables on the probability that a girl will have an out-of-wedlock birth.
	Bibliography Citation Plotnick, Robert D. "Determinants of Teenage Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1988.

614.	Pollitt, Amanda Mernitz, Sara E.
614.	The Influence of Religiosity on Alcohol Use Among Sexual Minority Youth in Same- and Different-Sex Unions Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Alcohol Use; Cohabitation; Discrimination, Sexual Orientation; Religious Influences; Unions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Sexual minority youth and young adults (SMY) are at higher risk for alcohol misuse compared to heterosexual youth. Stigma-based stressors, such as discrimination and internalized homophobia, potentially explain these alcohol use disparities. Sexual minority status is particularly visible when SMY are in same-sex unions and SMY may enter different-sex unions to reduce stigma at the expense of their health and wellbeing. Religious SMY may be most at-risk for minority stressors as they face additional pressure from religious communities, increasing their risk for heavy alcohol use. We use the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 to examine how religiosity moderates binge drinking among SMY in same- and different-sex unions. Results show few differences in binge drinking between SMY in same- and different-sex unions at low levels of religiosity. At high levels of religiosity, women and men in different-sex unions had reported increased binge drinking, suggesting negative stigma experiences among religious SMY.
	Bibliography Citation Pollitt, Amanda and Sara E. Mernitz. "The Influence of Religiosity on Alcohol Use Among Sexual Minority Youth in Same- and Different-Sex Unions." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

615.	Portier, Camille
615.	Occupational Characteristics and Life Course Health: Evidence From NLSY97 Presented: Online, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2021 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Control; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Job Characteristics; Job Hazards; Life Course; Occupational Information Network (ONET); Supervisor Characteristics Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this study, I examine the associations between health and occupational characteristics in early adulthood, a time in life when individuals transition to spending more hours at work each day. Specifically, I examine the link between self-reported health and physical demands, degree of exposure to adverse environmental conditions, degree of influence, someone's job control and level of supportive managerial practice in one's job from age 18 to age 37. Building both from life course and cumulative disadvantage theory, I develop hypotheses about how differential exposure to occupational characteristics lead to a differentiation in health trajectories among cohort members, differentially by gender and age. Combining data from NLSY97 with the ONET, I find that occupational characteristics are related to health trajectories in the early work life. This study also provides new evidence on how occupational characteristics play out in gendered contexts, and shed light on patterns of selection into occupations.
	Bibliography Citation Portier, Camille. "Occupational Characteristics and Life Course Health: Evidence From NLSY97." Presented: Online, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2021.

616.	Powers, Daniel A.
616.	A Simple Approach to Assess Group Differences in Estimated Baseline Survivor Functions from Cox Proportional Hazards Models Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Event History; Methods/Methodology; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Statistical Analysis Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We develop a heuristic approach to generate the expected events that would occur under a Cox proportional hazards model and illustrate how the results can be used to test for group differences in the resulting risk-adjusted survivor distributions. The estimated baseline survivor functions from a Cox proportional hazards models fit separately for two groups are used to construct the expected number of events occurring at each event time, the expected number of interval-censored observations, and the adjusted risk set corresponding to the expected decrements due to events and censoring for each group. Differences in the resulting expected survival distributions can be tested using log-rank and generalized Wilcoxon tests. This method should also prove useful for making other kinds of comparisons of adjusted life tables.
	Bibliography Citation Powers, Daniel A. "A Simple Approach to Assess Group Differences in Estimated Baseline Survivor Functions from Cox Proportional Hazards Models." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

617.	Powers, Daniel A. Ellison, Christopher G.
617.	Conservative Protestantism and Church Attendance Effects on Teen Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Modeling, Multilevel; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Pregnancy, Adolescent; Religious Influences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper investigates the effect of conservative protestant upbringing and church attendance on teen pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes for a cohort of non-Hispanic White women who were at risk for teen pregnancy during the early 1980s. Multivariate models show that lower teen pregnancy rates are associated with frequent church attendance for all religious groups (including non-religious) and that conservative protestants generally have higher rates of teen pregnancy than other groups. However, devout conservative Protestants showed the lowest rates of teen pregnancy.
	Bibliography Citation Powers, Daniel A. and Christopher G. Ellison. "Conservative Protestantism and Church Attendance Effects on Teen Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes." Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

618.	Poylio, Heta Van Winkle, Zachary
618.	Do Parental Resources Moderate the Relationship Between Women's Income and First Birth? Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cross-national Analysis; Family Income; Finland, Finnish; First Birth; Income; Parenthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Research suggests that women's delayed entry into parenthood is attributable to higher educational attainment and labor market status. We examine the extent that parental resources moderate the relationship between women's income and the timing of first birth in a liberal and social democratic welfare state. Results from Cox regressions using the 1979 US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and the Finnish Census Panel data show that parental resources and women's income are associated with delayed entry into parenthood. Further, in both countries parental resources are associated with delayed parenthood among low-income women, but with earlier parenthood among high-income women. However, the parental resource that moderates this relationship differs by the level of public family support. In the US, material resources, i.e. parental income, are associated with delayed first birth among low-income women. In contrast, immaterial resources, i.e. parental education, are associated with postponed parenthood among low-income women in Finland.
	Bibliography Citation Poylio, Heta and Zachary Van Winkle. "Do Parental Resources Moderate the Relationship Between Women's Income and First Birth?" Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

619.	Pressler, Emily
619.	Cumulative Family-Level Stress and Adolescent Weight Status: Gender Disparities Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Health; Body Mass Index (BMI); Family Influences; Gender Differences; Obesity; Stress; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Research focused on the family environment has suggested that cumulative family-level stress places adolescents at risk for obesity. Yet, it is unclear whether gender differences in adolescent weight status are dependent on childhood exposure to particular cumulative family-level stressors. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and the Young Adults files (n = 5,085), the proposed paper investigates how three cumulative family stress indices measured from birth to age 15 are related to adolescent weight status at age 18. The findings suggest that stress has different effects on female and male adolescent weight status. Greater childhood exposure to financial strain placed adolescent males at lower risk of being overweight/obese, while greater childhood exposure to financial strain and family disruption placed adolescent females at greater risk of being overweight/obese. Implications will be discussed in terms of improving adolescent health by reducing economic hardship and improving family relations during childhood.
	Bibliography Citation Pressler, Emily. "Cumulative Family-Level Stress and Adolescent Weight Status: Gender Disparities." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

620.	Price, Joseph P.
620.	Time vs. Money: Which Resources Matter for Children? Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America (PAA) 2008 Annual Meeting, April 17-19, 2008. Also: http://paa2008.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=80485 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): American Time Use Survey (ATUS); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birth Order; Family Income; Family Resources; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Parent-Child Interaction; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Parents face a number of decisions that involve a trade-off between the amount of time and money they can provide their children. This paper estimates the relative impact of parental time and family income on child outcomes. I exploit the fact that first-born child gets more parental time while the second child experiences a higher level of family income at each age and that these differences are larger when children are spaced further apart. Using this within-family variation in resources received by each child, I find that for the average family an hour of quality parent-child quality interaction produces the same amount of reading achievement as over $100 of additional family income. Parental time inputs also decrease measures of behavior problems but neither time nor family income appear to influence math achievement.
	Bibliography Citation Price, Joseph P. "Time vs. Money: Which Resources Matter for Children?" Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America (PAA) 2008 Annual Meeting, April 17-19, 2008.

621.	Price, Joseph P. Tappen, Henry
621.	Intra-Household Transfers While Children are Still at Home Presented: Detroit, MI, Population Association of America Meetings, April-May 2009 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): American Time Use Survey (ATUS); Family Resources; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Parent-Child Relationship/Closeness; Siblings; Time Use; Transfers, Parental Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Past research has focused on the degree to which bequests and inter-vivo transfers are allocated equally among an individual's children. This research has largely ignored how resources are allocated among children who are still at home. We use data from the NLSY, American Times Use Survey, and Census PUMS, to look sibling differences in parent-child time and frequency of being read to (as time investments), and enrollment in a private school (as a money investment). We find that parents allocate time and money resources to each of their children equally about 60-70% of the time (providing evidence of an equity motive that is in line with measures of bequest behavior). We also explore some of the factors that influence families to deviate from an equitable allocation.
	Bibliography Citation Price, Joseph P. and Henry Tappen. "Intra-Household Transfers While Children are Still at Home." Presented: Detroit, MI, Population Association of America Meetings, April-May 2009.

622.	Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie
622.	Does Health Insurance Coverage Mitigate or Exacerbate Socioeconomic Inequities in Health in the U.S.? Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Health Factors; Insurance, Health; Modeling; Siblings; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper examines the institutional impact of health insurance coverage on the pathways leading from status attainment to adult health. Using data from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, the analyzes consist of structural equation models of sibling resemblance (Hauser 1988). Results suggest that the cumulative effects of income are partially mediated by the effects of health insurance. More specifically, these analyzes indicate that health insurance and the source of coverage contribute to social inequities in health through very different pathways: first, the number of years privately insured was found to compound the positive sibling-specific effects of status attainment on health when contrasted with the lack of insurance; second, public insurance was not found to differ in its effects on health from private insurance; and third, public insurance may have the potential to reduce socioeconomic inequities from the family of origin when lack of insurance is the alternative.
	Bibliography Citation Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie. "Does Health Insurance Coverage Mitigate or Exacerbate Socioeconomic Inequities in Health in the U.S.?" Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

623.	Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie
623.	Early Socioeconomic Disadvantage and the Cumulative Impact of Socioeconomic Status over the Life Course on Adult Health Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004. Also: http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/0/9/4/0/pages109409/p109409-1.php Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Resources; Health Factors; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Life Course; Mobility; Socioeconomic Background; Socioeconomic Factors; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. While much research has confirmed the association between adult SES and adult health, still little is known about the impact of SES trajectories on adult health. SES is hypothesized to affect health over the life course primarily through its cumulative effects on health, regardless of when adversity is experienced in the life course. In addition to those cumulative effects, it has been argued that the experience of adverse socioeconomic conditions in critical periods, such as early in the life course, may be even more detrimental to adult health than later disadvantage. In addition, there has also been recent speculation as to the effect of intragenerational mobility trajectories on health. Using data from the NLSY79, this study will examine (1) the cumulative impact of financial resources, (2) the differential impact of those resources at different periods in the respondents' life courses, and (3), the impact of intragenerational mobility trajectories in early and mid-adulthood. In addition, the main and moderating effects of early disadvantage on these relationships will be assessed. Findings suggest that financial resources do have cumulative effects on health through early and mid-adulthood. In addition, while there appeared to be critical period effects when respondents were in their late twenties, there were no critical period effects of poverty in the early twenties, nor were there discernable mobility effects. SES is hypothesized to affect health over the life course in two ways. First, SES is thought to have cumulative effects on health, regardless of when adversity is experienced in the life course. In addition to those cumulative effects, it is argued that the experience of adverse socioeconomic conditions early in the life course is more detrimental to adult health than later disadvantage, since it is reflected in lower education opportunities, which in turn restrict achieved status and health in adulthood. Using data from the NLSY79, this study will therefore examine both the cumulative impact of life course socioeconomic status to health as well as the moderating contribution of early socioeconomic status at different life stages to this relationship. Findings suggest that SES does have cumulative effects on health through the life course and that individuals who experienced poverty in late adolescence have a higher return to employment.
	Bibliography Citation Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie. "Early Socioeconomic Disadvantage and the Cumulative Impact of Socioeconomic Status over the Life Course on Adult Health." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

624.	Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie Renahy, Emilie
624.	Pregnancy: A Risk Factor for Social Inequalities in Overweight and Obesity? Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Obesity; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Pregnancy, Adolescent; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We aimed to: 1. Estimate the average time to return to pre-pregnancy and “healthy” BMI (18.5-24.9) post-pregnancy. 2. Identify socioeconomic and ethnic characteristics placing women at risk of not returning to a healthy and/or their pre-pregnancy BMI. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 for 1890 parous women, we find that 68.6% of women returned to their pre-pregnancy BMI after 1.9 years on average. Similarly, 81.2% reached a healthy BMI after 1.7 years on average. However, given that 18.8% of women who returned to their pre-pregnancy BMI were overweight or obese, this suggests that the high proportion of women reaching a “healthy” BMI post-partum is due in part to underweight women transitioning into this “healthy” category. Moreover, higher proportions of women returned to their pre-pregnancy BMI among Whites (70.0%) than Blacks (62.1%) or Hispanics (57.4%) and among those whose mothers' had higher education.
	Bibliography Citation Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie and Emilie Renahy. "Pregnancy: A Risk Factor for Social Inequalities in Overweight and Obesity?" Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

625.	Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie Taylor, Miles G. Park, Alison
625.	Pathways from Parental Education to Adult Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Depression (see also CESD); Education; Fathers, Influence; Growth Curves; Health, Mental/Psychological; Income; Mothers, Education Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using latent growth curves, we decompose the effects of parental education on trajectories of depressive symptoms (DS) in adulthood into direct and indirect effects mediated by respondents' education and trajectories of income in adulthood. Data come from the NLSY79 (N=5,247). Mother's, but not father's, education had a direct effect on the intercept of DS, as each year of maternal education decreased the intercept of DS by 0.10 points (p<0.001). This direct effect declined in both significance (p<0.05) and by 50% in magnitude with the indirect effect through respondents' own education. Finally, the totality of the effect appeared to be indirect when trajectories of income were included. Thus, childhood appears to be a period sensitive to the effects of parents' education, but this effect wanes as individuals progress through the life course and more proximate effects of achieved status (education and income) take precedence.
	Bibliography Citation Quesnel-Vallée, Amélie, Miles G. Taylor and Alison Park. "Pathways from Parental Education to Adult Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

626.	Rackin, Heather M. Bachrach, Christine A. Morgan, S. Philip
626.	When Do Fertility Expectations Predict Fertility? Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Expectations/Intentions; Fertility; Life Course Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper grounds its analysis in novel theory (Bachrach and Morgan 2013) that suggests that responses to questions about fertility intentions and expectations may reflect distinct phenomena at distinct points in the life course. The theory suggests that women form ‘true’ intentions when their circumstances make the issue of childbearing salient and urgent enough to draw the cognitive resources needed to make a conscious plan. We use data from the NLSY79 that measures expectations throughout the life course to measure when fertility expectations are most predictive of final parity. We find that as women experience life course transitions that confer statuses normatively associated with childbearing – such as marriage, completion of education, and parenthood– their reported intentions are much better predictors of their fertility than women who have not passed through these life course milestones. We believe this has important implications for both the measurement and conceptualization of fertility intentions.
	Bibliography Citation Rackin, Heather M., Christine A. Bachrach and S. Philip Morgan. "When Do Fertility Expectations Predict Fertility?" Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

627.	Rackin, Heather M. Sereny, Melanie
627.	A Baby Is Always a Blessing? The Effects of Unintended Childbearing on Health Throughout the Life Course Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Depression (see also CESD); Family Formation; Fertility; Health, Mental/Psychological; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Motherhood; Parenthood; Propensity Scores; Wantedness Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Very limited research examines the longer-term impacts of unintended childbearing on women's physical and mental health. Our project will utilize the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to examine the relationship between unintended childbirth (either unwanted or mistimed) at various ages and mental and physical health outcomes in later life (near age 40). We are particularly interested in how the effects of unintended childbirth may differ by the age at which the event occurred. Our preliminary results show that younger (unintended) mothers are more likely to experience depressive symptoms at age 40 than women who never experienced an unintended birth. Similar results are found for self-rated health in older adulthood. Education may play a pivotal role in mediating the impact of an unintended birth on subsequent health. In our ongoing analysis we hope to disentangle the relationship between selection and causation for these respondents through propensity score matching.
	Bibliography Citation Rackin, Heather M. and Melanie Sereny. "A Baby Is Always a Blessing? The Effects of Unintended Childbearing on Health Throughout the Life Course." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

628.	Raley, Kelly McClendon, David Steidl, Ellyn
628.	Credits and Credentials: An In-Depth Analysis of the Association between Educational Attainment and the Risk of Divorce Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Enrollment; Divorce; Educational Attainment; Marital Stability Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study uses detailed transcript and self-report data on postsecondary experiences from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 Cohort (NLYS97) to investigate the association between educational attainment and marital stability for men and women. Our preliminary results indicate that incremental educational progress is associated with greater marital stability for women, even when it does not result in a degree. This provides more support for a learning than a credentialism argument. Moreover, years enrolled is not associated with reduced risk of divorce, but credits earned is. This supports the idea that something about what is learned in the classroom might contribute to marital stability, either directly or indirectly through labor force outcomes or spousal characteristics. We conclude with a discussion of future plans.
	Bibliography Citation Raley, Kelly, David McClendon and Ellyn Steidl. "Credits and Credentials: An In-Depth Analysis of the Association between Educational Attainment and the Risk of Divorce." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

629.	Raley, R. Kelly Gore, Kurt A. Pearson, Jennifer
629.	Chasing a Greased Pig: How Can We Get a Handle on Adolescent Dating and Romantic Relationships? Presented: Los Angeles CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March-April 2006 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Dating; Ethnic Differences; National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study uses data from the first wave of the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (Add Health) as well as the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth – 1997 (NLSY) to investigate the question of whether dating and romance are essentially the same. Our approach is to first compare the proportion who say they are dating (NLSY) to the proportion who say they are romantically involved in the (Add Health). Next, we will use the Add Health to examine the proportion of adolescents reporting romantic involvement who say that they went out alone or with a group. Finally, the analyses investigate the predictors of dating and romantic involvement to provide greater insight into the differing meanings of dating and romance. We find evidence to support the conclusion that dating and romance do not describe equivalent relationship types.
	Bibliography Citation Raley, R. Kelly, Kurt A. Gore and Jennifer Pearson. "Chasing a Greased Pig: How Can We Get a Handle on Adolescent Dating and Romantic Relationships?" Presented: Los Angeles CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March-April 2006.

630.	Raley, R. Kelly Kim, Yujin
630.	Early Family Formation: An Important Impediment to College Completion? Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Dropouts; College Education; College Enrollment; Educational Attainment; Family Formation; Fertility Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Substantial amounts of previous research have investigated the impact of a teen birth on high school completion. Although the effects of fertility on high school degree attainment are weaker than once believed, the general consensus is that teen fertility does have negative effects on educational attainment. Yet, we know little about the effects of fertility and family formation at higher levels on postsecondary attainment despite the fact that fertility rates are higher in the early twenties than they are in the teen years and rates of college-dropout are higher than rates of dropping out of high school. This extended abstract describes analysis using data from the 1997 NLSY to investigate the influence of family formation events on college persistence and degree attainment for both men and women.
	Bibliography Citation Raley, R. Kelly and Yujin Kim. "Early Family Formation: An Important Impediment to College Completion?" Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

631.	Raley, R. Kelly Kuo, Janet
631.	Does Employment Contribute to Higher College Dropout Rates among Students from Disadvantaged Backgrounds? Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Dropouts; Disadvantaged, Economically; Employment; Family Background and Culture; Socioeconomic Background Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The goal of this research is to better understand factors that contribute to the positive association between parental education and other aspects of advantage rooted in family background and college success. We begin our analysis by describing variation by parental education in student employment status during the academic year and during the summer. We find that students with college-educated parents have the lowest levels of employment, and are especially unlikely to be employed for more than 20 hours during the school year. Following we explore whether college-student employment is associated college persistence in the first year. Extensive employment is positively associated with the likelihood of dropping out, but only during the academic year. During the summer, employment is positively associated with persistence. Results indicate, however, that employment does not mediate the association between parental education and college persistence in the first year
	Bibliography Citation Raley, R. Kelly and Janet Kuo. "Does Employment Contribute to Higher College Dropout Rates among Students from Disadvantaged Backgrounds?" Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

632.	Ramey, David
632.	Punitive versus Medicalized Responses to Childhood Behavior Problems and Well-Being in Young Adulthood Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavior, Antisocial; Children, Adjustment Problems; Crime; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Grade Point Average (GPA)/Grades; Head Start; Health, Mental/Psychological; High School Completion/Graduates; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Psychological Effects; Racial Differences; Regions; Risk-Taking; Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) (see Self-Esteem); School Suspension/Expulsion; Self-Control/Self-Regulation Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Scholars have documented two contemporary trends involving misbehavior in public schools in the United States - a growing reliance on suspension and expulsion as punishment and medicalization, or the use of medical diagnoses and treatment. Despite these trends, we know little about how punishment and medicalization influence long-term social and economic well-being. W are unclear about how the social construction of child behavior contributes to involvement in the school to prison pipeline, a process in which children with behavior problems are pushed out of school and into crime and incarceration. This paper begins to consider the relationship between childhood social control and school performance within the context of the school to prison pipeline. I argue that school punishment may push kids out of school and potentially into the criminal justice system. On the other hand, medicalizing behavior problems may keep kids in school and out of the criminal justice system.
	Bibliography Citation Ramey, David. "Punitive versus Medicalized Responses to Childhood Behavior Problems and Well-Being in Young Adulthood." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

633.	Ramey, David
633.	The Roles of Race and Behavior as Determinants of Punishment versus Diagnosis of Childhood Behavior Problems Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavior, Antisocial; Health Care; Racial Equality/Inequality; School Suspension/Expulsion Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. For some time, scholars have documented racial disparities in both school punishment, school suspensions and expulsions, and the medical diagnosis and treatment of behavioral problems in children and adolescents. Until recently, however, these findings were relegated to separate literatures and isolated from one another. Thus, despite shared theoretical and conceptual histories, investigation of these trends has typically been relegated to separate literatures. This project takes a step toward bridging this gap by considering punishment and treatment as alternative responses to similar childhood behavioral problems. I use data from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Child Survey (NLSY-C) and logistic growth-curve models to present evidence that White children with antisocial and oppositional behavior problems are more likely to be treated with therapy or psychotropic medication than African-American children while African-American children with similar behavioral problems are more likely to receive school suspensions or expulsions than White children.
	Bibliography Citation Ramey, David. "The Roles of Race and Behavior as Determinants of Punishment versus Diagnosis of Childhood Behavior Problems." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

634.	Ratniece, Luize
634.	The Cohorts of Revolution and Stagnation: U.S. Women and the Changing Paradigm of Women's Labor Market Participation Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Gender Attitudes/Roles; Gender Differences; Labor Force Participation; Labor Market Demographics; Wage Gap Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper will explore gender differences in labour market trajectories that are still present even in one of the pioneer countries of the gender revolution. I shall map out gender convergence in labour market attachment, beginning with the pioneering cohorts born in 1940s. Using comparable data of three National Longitudinal Surveys permits me to identify the gender gap for each cohort by tracing their education and work trajectories. This serves to map out path dependencies in the labour market which either hasten or stall full gender convergence in labour market and income trajectories. I will estimate the extent of gender convergence since 1970, focusing on the interplay between labour market trajectories and demographic events, such as partnership formation and dissolution, and childbearing.
	Bibliography Citation Ratniece, Luize. "The Cohorts of Revolution and Stagnation: U.S. Women and the Changing Paradigm of Women's Labor Market Participation." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

635.	Reeder, Lori
635.	Parental Income, College Attendance, and First Birth Timing Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; College Enrollment; Income; Parental Influences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Whereas previous studies have estimated first birth differentials by race and education, the present study is the first to do so by parental income. The NLSY97 is employed to examine first birth timing across parental income quartiles among a recent cohort of U.S. women. Women from the lowest parental income quartile experience earlier first births, and higher hazards of first birth, relative to women in the middle parental income quartiles. Women in the highest parental income quartile exhibit the latest, and lowest hazard, of first birth. The relationship between parental income and fertility timing is examined through the intervening variable of college attendance.
	Bibliography Citation Reeder, Lori. "Parental Income, College Attendance, and First Birth Timing." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

636.	Regules, Ricardo Rivero, Estela
636.	From Juvenile Delinquency to Adult Employment: The Implications of Drug Dealing at Young Ages for Job Mobility in the U.S. Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Crime; Delinquency/Gang Activity; Employment History Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Most interventions to decrease violence are based on the assumptions, mostly supply based, that 1) the youngsters who opt to engage in criminal activities live in environments where there are no other opportunities, 2) they are NEETs (Not in Education, Employment or Training), and 3) once they are offered other opportunities they will take them, if they are more profitable than a career in crime. Nevertheless, none of these assumptions has been tested over the long term. In this paper we use the National Longitudinal Youth Survey 1980 Special Supplement to analyze the long-term employment trajectories of individuals engaging on drug selling and compare them with those who have never engaged in a criminal activity.
	Bibliography Citation Regules, Ricardo and Estela Rivero. "From Juvenile Delinquency to Adult Employment: The Implications of Drug Dealing at Young Ages for Job Mobility in the U.S." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

637.	Rehkopf, David Strully, Kate W.
637.	The Joint Impact of Income Supplementation and Food Prices on Child and Adolescent Overweight Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Health; Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC); Obesity; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Our analysis examines the independent and joint effects of income supplementation and food prices on child overweight from the ages of 2 to 18. We examine the effects of supplementation using variation from the national expansions and changing benefits structures of the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC). We examine the effects of prices using regional and temporal variation of baskets of unhealthy, healthy and fast food. We then examine whether there are interactions between income supplementation and local food pricing in determining onset of childhood overweight. These questions are examined using individual fixed effect regression models among children of participants of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 from 1990 to 2006. In aggregate we find that higher EITC benefits are associated with increased child overweight. However, among individual living in areas with the highest prices for healthy food, receipt of larger EITC benefits results in lower levels of overweight.
	Bibliography Citation Rehkopf, David and Kate W. Strully. "The Joint Impact of Income Supplementation and Food Prices on Child and Adolescent Overweight." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

638.	Rendall, Michael S. Ghosh-Dastidar, Bonnie Weden, Margaret M. Nazarov, Zafar
638.	Socio-Demographic Differentials in Experiencing a Major Occupational Injury in the Prime Working Ages: Estimation Using Within-Survey and Cross-Survey Multiple Imputation of Injury Histories Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Accidents; Injuries, Workplace; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Sociodemographic differentials in ever experiencing a major workplace injury in the prime working ages (25 to 44) are estimated from left- and right-censored injury histories in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79), and the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP). Because the injury hazard is higher for individuals with previous injuries, the age-specific hazard for those with no previous injury since age 25 must first be estimated. Injury histories from age 25, however, are available for a fraction of the NLSY sample and for none in the SIPP sample (only the most recent injury is recorded). For unbiased incorporation of all NLSY and SIPP observations, injury histories are first multiply imputed within the NLSY from non-left-censored histories. Injury histories are then multiply imputed from this “completed” NLSY dataset to every SIPP individual. Efficiency and bias of NLSY-only and NLSY-SIPP estimation are compared to estimation that ignores injury history.
	Bibliography Citation Rendall, Michael S., Bonnie Ghosh-Dastidar, Margaret M. Weden and Zafar Nazarov. "Socio-Demographic Differentials in Experiencing a Major Occupational Injury in the Prime Working Ages: Estimation Using Within-Survey and Cross-Survey Multiple Imputation of Injury Histories." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

639.	Ribar, David C.
639.	A Longitudinal Analysis of Young Women's Fertility and Educational Advancement Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Childbearing; Educational Attainment; Women's Education Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines the relationship between teenage and young adult women's childbearing and educational advancement using data from the 1979-92 panels of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. It employs the Method of Simulated Moments to estimate discrete-time, discrete-choice models of school advancement and fertility and examines the effects that the frequency, timing and spacing of births have on young women's subsequent decisions to remain in, leave, and re-enter school. The econometric framework accounts for serial correlation in unobserved determinants of schooling as well as cross-equation correlations in the unobserved determinants of schooling and fertility The empirical analysis reveals that once these forms of correlation are taken into account, the estimated educational consequences of fertility are either substantially reduced or eliminated
	Bibliography Citation Ribar, David C. "A Longitudinal Analysis of Young Women's Fertility and Educational Advancement." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

640.	Ribar, David C.
640.	Socioeconomic Consequences of Young Women's Childbearing: Reconciling Disparate Evidence Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Educational Attainment; Employment; Family Background and Culture; Income; Marital Status; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Ribar, David C. "Socioeconomic Consequences of Young Women's Childbearing: Reconciling Disparate Evidence." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

641.	Rich, Lauren M.
641.	Employment Opportunity, Wages and Adolescent Premarital Childbearing Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Labor; Childbearing, Adolescent; Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Contraception; Disadvantaged, Economically; Employment, Youth; Endogeneity; Labor Economics; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Pregnancy, Adolescent; Socioeconomic Factors; Teenagers; Work History Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Policy analysts have increasingly suggested that teen pregnancy prevention efforts need to address the underlying socioeconomic conditions, e.g., low employment opportunity which may "encourage" early childbearing among disadvantaged youth. To investigate the potential for such approaches, this study uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to estimate the impact of total weeks of employment prior to time t, and expected wage at time t, on the probability that a teenager bears a child between periods t and t+l. A discrete time hazard model, which allows for both time-varying and time-invariant factors to influence a teen's childbearing decision, is employed. In addition, to deal with the potential endogeneity of previous employment this variable is instrumented with state and local unemployment rates, local industrial structure, and state variation in child labor laws. Results of the analysis indicate that young women residing in areas with greater employment opportunities may be less likely to give birth as teenagers.
	Bibliography Citation Rich, Lauren M. "Employment Opportunity, Wages and Adolescent Premarital Childbearing." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

642.	Rippeyoung, Phyllis L. F. Noonan, Mary Christine
642.	Is Breastfeeding Truly Free? The Economic Consequences of Breastfeeding for Women Presented: Detroit MI, Population Association of America Meetings, April-May 2009 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Breastfeeding; Earnings; Income; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Mixed Effects; Work Hours/Schedule Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Research has clearly demonstrated that income and work status are two strong predictors of whether or not a mother breastfeeds her child: income has a positive effect and work status has a negative effect on the odds of a woman breastfeeding versus formula feeding her child. However, the effect of breastfeeding on women’s employment outcomes is largely unknown. Since breastfeeding is currently less compatible with work than formula feeding, women who breastfeed their children may be more likely to take an extended maternity leave, reduce their work hours after childbirth, or quit work entirely. These strategies will potentially lead to lower earnings in the short-term and may also affect long-term economic prospects by reducing mothers’ prospects for promotions or raises. Using growth modeling and fixed effects techniques, we use the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to assess whether there are long-term differences in the earnings trajectories between breastfeeding and formula feeding mothers.
	Bibliography Citation Rippeyoung, Phyllis L. F. and Mary Christine Noonan. "Is Breastfeeding Truly Free? The Economic Consequences of Breastfeeding for Women." Presented: Detroit MI, Population Association of America Meetings, April-May 2009.

643.	Ritualo, Amy R. Morrison, Donna Ruane
643.	Dynamics of Post-Divorce: How Remarriage and Cohabitation Influence the Changing Economic Resources of Children Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children, Well-Being; Cohabitation; Divorce; Exits; Marital Disruption; Marital Dissolution; Marital Status Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although it is well documented that children and their mothers experience marked declines in their economic circumstances following divorce, many women move on to subsequent marital and non-marital relationships. Our aim is to understand how declines in children's economic resources following marital disruption are moderated by the patterns of their mothers' subsequent unions. The paper departs from traditional approaches to understanding children's economic well-being in the aftermath of divorce by considering both how cohabitation as well as remarriage contribute to the economic standing of separated or divorced mothers and their children. This is important as rates of remarriage have fallen in recent years, increasingly replaced by cohabiting unions. We use panel data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth - Child Supplement to examine changes in economic resources associated with particular post-disruption transitions (both entries and exits).
	Bibliography Citation Ritualo, Amy R. and Donna Ruane Morrison. "Dynamics of Post-Divorce: How Remarriage and Cohabitation Influence the Changing Economic Resources of Children." Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998.

644.	Roberts, Tracy Elizabeth Martin, Steven P.
644.	Marital Paths from Welfare to Self-Sufficiency: A Dynamic Analysis of Women's Marriage Timing and Transitions out of and into Welfare Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=71581 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Circumstances, Changes in; Marriage; Transition, Welfare to Work; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Promoting marriage as a path out of welfare dependency has become a policy priority. It is unclear, however, how effective marriage can be at stabilizing poor women's family circumstances. To understand the effect of marriage on welfare transitions, we employ two models. The first model examines whether women exit welfare through marriage. The second model examines whether the timing of marriage affects the probability of return. Do women who marry in subsequent years after welfare exit have lower rates of recidivism than women who marry during a welfare spell? Our preliminary results suggest that women who enter marriage in the years following a welfare exit have lower recidivism rates than women who marry during a welfare spell. However, in the fifteen years following a welfare exit, recidivism rates are high for both groups of women.
	Bibliography Citation Roberts, Tracy Elizabeth and Steven P. Martin. "Marital Paths from Welfare to Self-Sufficiency: A Dynamic Analysis of Women's Marriage Timing and Transitions out of and into Welfare." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

645.	Roderick, Roger D. Davis, Joseph M.
645.	Correlates of Atypicality of Occupational Assignment Among Young Women Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, 1972 Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Earnings; Educational Attainment; Employment; Occupations, Male; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines the correlates of atypical occupational assignment. For both whites and blacks, women in atypical occupations are less educated and are from lower socioeconomic backgrounds as compared to those in typical occupations. Also, women in the atypical occupations are more likely to hold full-time jobs, to report stronger work attachment and to be extrinsically motivated in their labor market behavior. In addition, atypical workers usually attain higher rates of pay compared to atypicals.
	Bibliography Citation Roderick, Roger D. and Joseph M. Davis. "Correlates of Atypicality of Occupational Assignment Among Young Women." Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, 1972.

646.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee
646.	Comparing Old NLSY Sibling Data to New NLSY Sibling Data: Sexuality and Fertility Patterns in the NLSY Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America (PAA) 2008 Annual Meeting, April 17-19, 2008 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Intercourse; Age at Menarche/First Menstruation; Kinship; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The NLSY79 and the NLSY-Children surveys include all biological children in a sampled household, and have been the basis for many sibling studies (including behavior genetic studies). However, genetic relatedness of siblings in these surveys has never been assessed directly, through survey questions, but rather has been inferred with kinship algorithms (using external information about living relationships). The first direct assessments are now available in the 2006 datasets. In this study, I present descriptive analyses of the direct survey questions. Next, I present a matching analysis showing similarities and differences in the number of twins, full siblings, half siblings, cousins, and adoptive siblings across the two methods. Finally, I present analyses of female measures of age at first intercourse and age at menarche. These outcomes have been studied extensively using inferred links, and provide comparison of model-based results from the two approaches to ascertaining kinship relatedness.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee. "Comparing Old NLSY Sibling Data to New NLSY Sibling Data: Sexuality and Fertility Patterns in the NLSY." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America (PAA) 2008 Annual Meeting, April 17-19, 2008.

647.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee
647.	Does Having Boys (or Girls) "Run in the Family"? Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Demography; Family Studies; Fertility; Genetics; Pairs (also see Siblings); Sex Ratios; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Many people believe that a tendency to have boys or girls rims in a family. But research in the statistical literature suggests that humans are notoriously bad at diagnosing random patterns. Are family sex composition patterns random or systematic? Three possible methodologies to detect such a bias are reviewed, including medical, demographic, and behavioral genetic studies. We use the last two strategies, along with the NLSY to study family patterns of sex composition. Our "Demographic Study" descriptively examines the sex composition patterns of the children born to the NLSY Youth through 1994 (when this sample is 29-36 years of age). Our "Behavior Genetic Study" uses a recently developed kinship linking algorithm for the NLSY-Youth to account for whether the sex ratios of children born to NLSY respondents are more similar among more highly related kinship pairs.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee. "Does Having Boys (or Girls) "Run in the Family"?" Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997.

648.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee
648.	Seasonality of Menarche Among U.S. Females Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Age at Menarche/First Menstruation; Childbearing; Data Quality/Consistency; Menarche/First Menstruation; Seasonality; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent interest in birth seasonality leads to research on the proximal and distal variables that could cause seasonality in birth distributions. Menarche is one such distal variable. Investigation of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) shows a strong summer peak in reported menarche among a representative sample of over 6000 U.S. women. The pattern is consistent across race and age. In addition, data on age at menarche are available as well. A theoretical structure is defined and tested linking month of menarche to subsequent coital activity and eventually to birth seasonality. Further, both age and month of menarche can be used to test a recent theory suggesting nonlinear (and thus seasonal) patterns in physiological growth.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee. "Seasonality of Menarche Among U.S. Females." Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993.

649.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee Bard, David E.
649.	Modeling NLSY Fertility Patterns Longitudinally and Biometrically: Evolutionary, Genetic, and Social Interpretations Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Fertility; Genetics; Kinship; Modeling, Multilevel Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using fertility patterns and kinship information from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), we fit biometrical models to partition genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environmental variance associated with fertility differences in the NLSY females. Those females -- who were aged 35-42 in the 2000 data -- have mostly completed childbearing. Our model is a multivariate longitudinal model linking early fertility, early middle fertility, middle fertility, and late middle fertility. Our analysis shows different genetic sources underlying early and later fertility, and strong shared environmental influences only for early fertility. These findings are interpreted in relation to Fisher's Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection, and also in relation to a theory developed by Udry (1995) explaining how the amount of reproductive choice constrains the link between fertility preferences and the biological expression of those preferences.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee and David E. Bard. "Modeling NLSY Fertility Patterns Longitudinally and Biometrically: Evolutionary, Genetic, and Social Interpretations." Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

650.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee Johnson, Amber Bard, David E.
650.	Inferring Sibling Relatedness from the NLSY Youth and Children Data: Past, Present, and Future Prospects Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America (PAA) Annual Meetings, March-April 2006 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Genetics; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Kinship; Modeling, Multilevel; Siblings; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In a number of disciplinary arenas related to demography, the distinction between full, half, and adoptive siblings is highly relevant. Behavioral genetics requires information about genetic and environmental relatedness to fit biometrical models. Socialization researchers infer expected commitment -- and predicted social learning -- from these sibling categories. Family structure researchers rely on these distinctions as inputs to their models. However, despite its remarkable features and innovations, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth data do not explicitly distinguish between full, half, and adoptive silbings. We report on our several kinship linking algorithms that infer sibling relatedness from other information in the NLSY and NLSYC. Internal validation procedures use height and weight information, and concurrent validity indicators compare NLSY sibling results to other sibling studies. Past successes and the current status of these efforts are reviewed, and plans to collect explicit sibling information for the NLSY is reported.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee, Amber Johnson and David E. Bard. "Inferring Sibling Relatedness from the NLSY Youth and Children Data: Past, Present, and Future Prospects." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America (PAA) Annual Meetings, March-April 2006.

651.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee Rowe, David C.
651.	Problem Behaviors in Childhood: Behavior-Genetics Modeling of National Data Presented: Denver, CO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1992 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Child Development; Children, Behavioral Development; Genetics; Home Environment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Kinship; Parental Influences; Siblings; Slutsky Matrix Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using the NLSY child-mother data, the authors link Behavioral Problem Index scores for a large number of siblings and cousins and a smaller number of twins and second-cousins. With a behavior-genetics method from DeFries and Fulcher (1985), indicators of kinship similarity and differences are analyzed into sources attributable to heredity, common environment, and a residual that represents a combination of unique environment and measurement error. This residual is further analyzed to locate specific sources of unique environmental effects. When the residuals correlate with individual-level features of the home environment (as measured by the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment -- HOME --inventory), these features are implicated as possible sources that create differences between siblings that can lead to differences in their childhood behavior problems. Such measures include ones related to parental attention, parental discipline, and intellectual stimulation.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee and David C. Rowe. "Problem Behaviors in Childhood: Behavior-Genetics Modeling of National Data." Presented: Denver, CO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1992.

652.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee Rowe, David C. Buster, Maury Allen
652.	Nature, Nurture, and First Intercourse: Fitting Behavior Genetic Models to NLSY Kinship Data Presented: New Orleans, LA, Meetings of the Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Behavior; Adolescent Fertility; Adoption; Age at First Intercourse; Contraception; Gender Differences; Genetics; Kinship; Modeling; Pairs (also see Siblings); Peers/Peer influence/Peer relations; Sexual Behavior; Siblings; Simultaneity Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Newcomer (1994) stated that "Partners, peers, parents (maybe even genes) and the community all influence [adolescent sexual] behavior" (p. 85). Udry and Campbell (1994) surveyed the literature and found only one small study that accounted for genetic influences on adolescent sexual behavior. Apparently, little research has been done to address the role that genetic influences play in various aspects of fertility behavior, or the tradeoff between genetic and environmental influences. Udry's work (e.g., Udry, 1988) suggests an important role of hormonal influences in both male and female sexual behavior, and biosocial models of adolescent sexuality are becoming increasingly popular (e.g., Hofferth, 1987; Rodgers & Rowe, 1993; Udry, 1988). Fisher's (1930) work raised doubts as to whether it would ever be fruitful to search for genetic influences on fertility behavior. Plomin, DeFries, and McClearn (1990), drawing on work by Fisher and Falconer (1981), explained that potential changes in relative fitness across generations due to a particular trait can be measured by the amount of additive genetic variance in that trait present in the population. They concluded that we should "expect heritability to be low for major components of fitness, such as fertility" (p. 285), and suggest that most genetic variance in such traits should be nonadditive. However, this expectation depends on a long enough period of time that traits with selective advantage can realize that advantage. Our investigation will treat age at first sexual intercourse in the U.S. population. During the past several centuries, there have been secular changes--both up and down--in the age at first intercourse. Furthermore, the development of reliable and widespread use of effective contraception must weaken the selective advantage offered by early onset of sexual behavior in societies with little or no contraceptive use. Such changes could certainly act to weaken the selective value of early onset of sexual activity. Given these changes, it is an important theoretical question to ask whether genes play a role in influencing onset of sexual behavior. At the same time, the role of environmental influences is also of particular interest and importance. Our modeling will simultaneously address the role of both types of influence. The data we will use to address the role of genetic and environmental influences on age at first intercourse come from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (the NLSY), a national probability sample of households that started with approximately 12,000 youth aged 14-21 in 1979. To separate the contribution of genetic versus environmental influences requires data from different kinship levels (e.g., monozygotic versus dizygotic twins; adoptive siblings versus full siblings; etc.). Little of this type of information is contained explicitly in the NLSY, although the household structure of the NLSY data results in many kinship links being contained in the data. We have recently developed a linking algorithm (Rodgers, 1996) that uses several variables in the NLSY files to classify kinship pairs into adoptive, half, and full sibling, twin, and cousin pairs. We will use this kinship structure along with a recently developed regression procedure, DF Analysis, (DeFries and Fulker, 1985; Rodgers, Rowe & Li, 1993) to analyze variance in age at first intercourse into that attributable to genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environmental influences. Because patterns of sexual debut differ substantially across race and across genders, we will fit our models separately by these demographic categories.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee, David C. Rowe and Maury Allen Buster. "Nature, Nurture, and First Intercourse: Fitting Behavior Genetic Models to NLSY Kinship Data." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Meetings of the Population Association of America, May 1996.

653.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee Rowe, David C. Harris, David F.
653.	Older Sibling Influence on Adolescent Sexuality: Inferring Process Models from Family Composition Patterns Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, 1990 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Household Composition; Sexual Activity; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee, David C. Rowe and David F. Harris. "Older Sibling Influence on Adolescent Sexuality: Inferring Process Models from Family Composition Patterns." Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, 1990.

654.	Rodgers, Joseph Lee Vickers, Karen Bradley
654.	The Seasonality of Onset of Adolescent Sexuality Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Hispanics; Racial Differences; Seasonality; Sexual Activity; Sexual Behavior; Sexual Experiences/Virginity Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent attention to seasonality of births leads to an interest in seasonality patterns in the antecedents to birth, including gestational length, conception, and coital activity. In this paper the authors begin at the very beginning of the process and study the seasonality of the onset of sexual intercourse. Data come from two sources, the ADSEX (Adolescent Sexuality) data and the NLSY data. Analysis of the ADSEX data suggests a summer peak in onset of adolescent coitus. This finding suggests a simple "Summer Vacation Theory" in which the likelihood of a virgin adolescent making the transition to nonvirginity increases immediately after school is out for the summer. This theory is then tested by cross-validating patterns in the ADSEX data against those in the NLSY data. The patterns in this national dataset match those from ADSEX, in that a large peak is found in June and, to a lesser extent, in July. These patterns are consistent across race and period, although some minor differences between Hispanics and other races and between high school and college onset are noted and interpreted.
	Bibliography Citation Rodgers, Joseph Lee and Karen Bradley Vickers. "The Seasonality of Onset of Adolescent Sexuality." Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990.

655.	Rogers, Stacy J.
655.	Family Structure and Children's Social and Emotional Development: Marital Quality, Mother-Child Interaction and Child Outcomes in Mother-Father and Mother-Stepfather Families Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Child Health; Family Characteristics; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Family Income; Family Structure; Fathers, Absence; Fathers, Biological; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Marital Stability; Maternal Employment; Self-Esteem; Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this research, a sample of 697 8 to 12 year old children from the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey's Youth Cohort in 1988 is used to consider family interaction patterns and their effects for children's self-esteem and behavior problems in mother-father and mother-stepfather families. I also consider the extent to which children's feelings of self-esteem may mediate the effect of mother-child interaction on child behavior problems. The results indicate that more supportive mother-child interaction is significantly related to higher self-esteem and lower levels of behavior problems for children, regardless of family structure. There are also important differences in family process and its effects on children. In mother-father families, a higher quality marital relationship is significantly and directly related to more supportive mother-child interaction and lower levels of behavior problems in children. In contrast, the marital relationship in mother-stepfather families does not significantly effect other aspects of family life. The effect of self-esteem on children's behavior problems is also different for children in the two types of families. For children in mother-father families, having higher self-esteem is significantly related to lower levels of behavior problems. Children's self-esteem does not significantly effect their level of behavior problems for children in mother-stepfather families. The implications of these findings for children's social capital are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Rogers, Stacy J. "Family Structure and Children's Social and Emotional Development: Marital Quality, Mother-Child Interaction and Child Outcomes in Mother-Father and Mother-Stepfather Families." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

656.	Rogers, Stacy J.
656.	Marital Quality, Mothers' Parenting and Children's Outcomes: A Comparison of Mother/Father and Mother/Stepfather Families Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Behavioral Development; Family Structure; Family Studies; Marital Conflict; Marital Satisfaction/Quality; Marital Stability; Parenting Skills/Styles; Self-Esteem Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The present research investigates the patterns of associations among marital quality, mothers' parenting practices and children's behavior problems and self-esteem in mother/stepfather and mother/father families. Data from a sample of 697 8 to 12 year old children from the 1988 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth are used to investigate these associations. The results indicate marital quality is significantly associated with mothers' parenting and children's outcomes in mother/father families. However, in mother/stepfather families, marital conflict is not associated with mothers' parenting or children's outcomes. Mothers' authoritative parenting is significantly related to children's outcomes in both family types.
	Bibliography Citation Rogers, Stacy J. "Marital Quality, Mothers' Parenting and Children's Outcomes: A Comparison of Mother/Father and Mother/Stepfather Families." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

657.	Rogers, Stacy J.
657.	Parents' Work and Children's Social Capital: The Interface of Work, Parenting, and Child Adjustment in Mother/Father and Mother/Stepfather Families Presented: San Francisco, CA, Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, April 1995 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Studies; Maternal Employment; Parent-Child Relationship/Closeness; Parental Influences; Parental Marital Status; Parenting Skills/Styles; Work Ethic Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Rogers, Stacy J. "Parents' Work and Children's Social Capital: The Interface of Work, Parenting, and Child Adjustment in Mother/Father and Mother/Stepfather Families." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, April 1995.

658.	Rogers, Stacy J.
658.	Variations by Family Structure and Family Size in the Relationship Between Maternal Work Hours and Marital Quality Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Characteristics; Family Size; Family Structure; Marital Conflict; Marital Satisfaction/Quality; Mothers; Sex Roles; Work Hours/Schedule Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This research uses the 1988 wave of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Merged Child-Mother data set to investigate the association between married mothers' employment and their reports of marital conflict and marital happiness in continuously married families with children and mother/stepfather families with children. For continuously married families, the findings indicate a nonsignificant trend that is consistent with role strain perspectives. For mother/stepfather families there is a significant trend in which mothers full-time employment is associated with higher marital quality when there are more children in the household. These findings are interpreted in light of the distributive justice perspective's emphasis on the meanings of roles and the importance of spouses' perceptions of equity for marital quality.
	Bibliography Citation Rogers, Stacy J. "Variations by Family Structure and Family Size in the Relationship Between Maternal Work Hours and Marital Quality." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

659.	Romich, Jennifer L.
659.	Far Beyond the First Three Years: Parental Employment and Problem Behavior in Early Adolescence Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2001 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birth Order; Household Structure; Marital Status; Maternal Employment; Modeling Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper looks at the relationship between parents' amount of work and child behavior for children ages 10-15. Emphasis is placed on quantity of time spent at work and instrumental, as opposed to emotional, ways that work can affect children's lives. Time spent at work is hypothesized to decrease parental availability for childrearing and monitoring, leading to increases in children's problem and deviant behavior. Linking parental employment with child outcomes requires a model of how employment can affect children and careful methodological consideration of unobservable characteristics and parental choice. I outline issues involved in modeling the relationship between parental employment and children's behavior. Using nonexperimental longitudinal data, I describe the relationship and compare models estimating the effects of employment hours.
	Bibliography Citation Romich, Jennifer L. "Far Beyond the First Three Years: Parental Employment and Problem Behavior in Early Adolescence." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2001.

660.	Romich, Jennifer L.
660.	Training, Trading or Taking? Parents' Work, Children's Work and Intergenerational Transfers Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Allowance, Pocket Money; Children, Well-Being; Employment; Household Demand; Household Income; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Parent-Child Relationship/Closeness; Transfers, Family; Transfers, Parental Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Research on parental employment and child well-being generally focuses on the relationship between parents' work and available financial resources for parents to transfer to children. However, children of working parents may provide valuable resources to their households as well in the form of household labor including sibling care. Using child- and household-level data from families with 12-18-year-olds in the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (Add Health) and the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, I examine the relationship between parental employment, children's household work and transfers to children. I hypothesize that being in a household in which all parents work increases the likelihood that a child provides household labor and receives direct financial transfers in the form of allowances or pocket money. The relationship is stronger in households with younger siblings. Interactions with child gender are investigated and implications for child well-being are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Romich, Jennifer L. "Training, Trading or Taking? Parents' Work, Children's Work and Intergenerational Transfers." Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

661.	Romich, Jennifer L. Gao, Xiang
661.	Does Children's Housework Matter?: Adult Trajectories of Boys and Girls Who Spend Time Doing Household Chores and Sibling Care Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, April 2008 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Gender Attitudes/Roles; Housework/Housewives; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although research has focused on the impact of youth employment while in high school, less attention has been paid to the responsibilities some young adults have within the household. However, children do considerable homemaking and care work within the house. What is the impact of this work on children's subsequent development? Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort, we examine housework, sibling caretaking, and subsequent adult beliefs and behavior within a sample of adolescents with younger siblings. Our evidence suggests that work done in the childhood home may have lasting significance on beliefs and roles later in life. For instance, men in their early 40s who had cared for younger siblings as teens were less likely to have children and were more likely to favor women's employment and believe that that men should share housework.
	Bibliography Citation Romich, Jennifer L. and Xiang Gao. "Does Children's Housework Matter?: Adult Trajectories of Boys and Girls Who Spend Time Doing Household Chores and Sibling Care." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, April 2008.

662.	Rosenzweig, Mark R. Wolpin, Kenneth I.
662.	Inequality at Birth: The Scope for Policy Intervention Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Birthweight; Child Health; Childbearing; Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Fertility; Mothers, Health; Parental Influences; Sons; Substance Use Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Rosenzweig, Mark R. and Kenneth I. Wolpin. "Inequality at Birth: The Scope for Policy Intervention." Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990.

663.	Ryan, Rebecca M.
663.	Nonresident Fatherhood and Adolescent Sexual Behavior: A Comparison of Siblings Approach Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Intercourse; Age at Menarche/First Menstruation; Attitudes; Fatherhood; Fathers, Absence; Gender Differences; Genetics; Modeling, Multilevel; Sexual Behavior; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although voluminous research has linked nonresident fatherhood to riskier sexual behavior among adolescents, neither the causality of those links nor the mechanism accounting for them has been well-established. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 ï¿½ the Young Adult survey (CNLSY79-YA), the present study addresses both questions by comparing the sexual development of siblings discordant in age at father departure from the home and examining results across behavioral (age at first intercourse), biological (pubertal timing), and cognitive (attitudes about sex and childbearing) sexual outcomes (N = 5792). Findings indicate that nonresident fatherhood, beginning either at birth or during middle childhood, leads to an earlier sexual debut for girls, but not boys, an effect likely explained by altered attitudes toward sex and reproduction rather than accelerated pubertal development. Implications for policies to curb the incidence of risky sexual behavior in adolescence are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Ryan, Rebecca M. "Nonresident Fatherhood and Adolescent Sexual Behavior: A Comparison of Siblings Approach." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

664.	Ryan, Rebecca M. Claessens, Amy
664.	Associations Between Family Structure Changes and Children’s Behavior: The Moderating Effects of Timing and Marital Birth Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Divorce; Family Structure; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Marital Dissolution; Parental Influences; Parental Marital Status; Parents, Single Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The present study explores the implications of family instability for child development by investigating the conditions under which family structure changes matter most to child well-being. Using data from the Maternal and Child Supplement of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 3,492), it estimates how changes in family structure during four different developmental periods relate to concurrent and subsequent changes in children’s behavioral trajectories. We estimate associations separately for children born to married and unwed parents, or “fragile families”, to determine if family instability has different effects on children across policy-relevant family types. Results indicate that changes in family structure during the first three years influence children’s behavioral development more consistently than later changes, changes into a single-parent family have different implications than changes into a blended family, and changes in family structure matter more for children born to married parents than children in fragile families.
	Bibliography Citation Ryan, Rebecca M. and Amy Claessens. "Associations Between Family Structure Changes and Children’s Behavior: The Moderating Effects of Timing and Marital Birth." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2012.

665.	Ryan, Rebecca M. Padilla, Christina Hines, Caitlin
665.	Differential Parenting of Biologically Vulnerable Versus Nonvulnerable Children By Socioeconomic Status Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Birthweight; Children, Temperament; Parental Investments; Parenting Skills/Styles; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. It is well-established that socioeconomic (SES) disadvantage and biological vulnerability contribute to SES-based gaps in children's school readiness. The proposed study will investigate one way in which these two disadvantages may jointly exacerbate these early gaps: low-SES parents may invest fewer resources in vulnerable children, whereas high-SES parents may invest equally or more in them. Unlike prior research, the study focuses on investment during early childhood and examines two biological vulnerabilities: low birth weight (LBW) and difficult temperament. Investments are compared among siblings to minimize the influence of family-specific characteristics that might bias associations, drawing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth-Maternal and Child Supplement. Results indicate that low-SES parents are less cognitively stimulating with LBW infants, whereas higher-SES parents are not, but that parents across SES are less stimulating with difficult versus average temperament children and are more likely to report spanking them in infancy.
	Bibliography Citation Ryan, Rebecca M., Christina Padilla and Caitlin Hines. "Differential Parenting of Biologically Vulnerable Versus Nonvulnerable Children By Socioeconomic Status." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

666.	Ryberg, Renee
666.	Risk and Protective Factors Associated With Opportunity Youth Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cognitive Ability; Disconnected Youth; Pregnancy, Adolescent; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. During the transition to adulthood, youth finish education and begin work trajectories that affect them for their rest of their lives. A large subset of youth, however, stall out during this transition. More than one in ten youth ages 16-24 are not actively engaged in society as either students or workers (Belfield, Levin, & Rosen, 2012; Burd-Sharps & Lewis, 2018). Previous research has identified some of the risk and protective factors associated with youth disconnection, but analyses at the national level have been quite limited. This study examines the risk and protective factors associated with youth disconnection using NLSY97 and examines how these factors vary by severity of disconnection (chronic vs. temporary) and demographic groups known to experience disconnection differently. Preliminary analyses indicate that cognitive ability acts as a protective factor against disconnection and teen parenthood is the largest risk factor across types of disconnection.
	Bibliography Citation Ryberg, Renee. "Risk and Protective Factors Associated With Opportunity Youth." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

667.	Rybinska, Anna
667.	Revisiting Measures of Childbearing Intentions: Should We Worry About Measurement Error? Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Family Size; Fertility; Statistical Analysis Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although the measures of childbearing intentions are widely used in studies of fertility, little attention is paid to their statistical reliability. The effects of the intentions on subsequent behavior might be biased if the statistical reliability of the measures is poor. I employ the structural equations framework to build a measurement model of family size intentions and analyze the impact of the measurement error on the predictions of childbearing behavior for respondents of the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Results suggest that the measurement error in the intentions leads to underestimation of the coefficients. The effects of intentions of childbearing are significantly larger once the regression is adjusted for the measurement error. These results call for more attention to the precision of the measurement of intentions in future research.
	Bibliography Citation Rybinska, Anna. "Revisiting Measures of Childbearing Intentions: Should We Worry About Measurement Error?" Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

668.	Rybinska, Anna
668.	What Are the Determinants of Intentions for Childlessness? Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Career Patterns; College Enrollment; Expectations/Intentions; Fertility; Marital History/Transitions; Modeling, Fixed Effects Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The results from the National Survey of Family Growth indicate that the prevalence of the intentions for childlessness among young women in America is increasing. At the same time, empirical studies provide evidence that intentions for childlessness serve as a strong predictor of subsequent permanent childlessness. Despite the rising prevalence of intentions for having no children among young women, and their strong connection to permanent childlessness, little is known about what contributes to the development of such reports. In this project, I examine the determinants of intentions for childlessness for a cohort of American women who participated in the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. The effects of the changes in women's marital histories, professional careers, and educational enrollment on the probability of reporting an intention for childlessness are explored. Methods of longitudinal data analysis (fixed and random effects models) are used to capture the dynamic nature of women’s lives.
	Bibliography Citation Rybinska, Anna. "What Are the Determinants of Intentions for Childlessness?" Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

669.	Sabia, Joseph J. Covinald, Reggie
669.	Teen Parenthood and Adult Civic Engagement: New Evidence from the NLSY97 Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Civic Engagement; Income; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Mothers, Adolescent; Parenthood; Political Attitudes/Behaviors/Efficacy; Teenagers; Volunteer Work; Voting Behavior Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using data drawn from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth 1997 (NLSY97), we examine the relationship between teen parenthood and four measures of adult civic engagement: charitable giving, volunteerism, political awareness, and voting. Ordinary least squares (OLS) and propensity score matching (PSM) estimates suggest that teen parenthood is associated with lower levels of civic engagement. Family fixed effects estimates show estimated associations that are smaller in magnitude, but do not rule out adverse civic engagement effects. Finally, when we compare adult civic engagement of teen mothers to women who became pregnant, but miscarried as teens, we continue to find that teen motherhood is negatively related to charitable giving, volunteerism, and voting. Our findings suggest that diminished leisure time and adverse income effects of teen motherhood may have important adverse consequences for civic engagement.
	Bibliography Citation Sabia, Joseph J. and Reggie Covinald. "Teen Parenthood and Adult Civic Engagement: New Evidence from the NLSY97." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

670.	Saint Onge, Jarron Smith, Sarah Scheuermann, Taneisha
670.	Pre- and Post-Natal Maternal Smoking Trajectories: The Role of Multiple Health Behaviors and Behavioral-Risk Profiles Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Modeling, Latent Class Analysis/Latent Transition Analysis; Obesity; Pre/post Natal Behavior; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Smoking (see Cigarette Use); Substance Use Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Pregnancy is an important intervention point for improving health behaviors, as mothers commonly receive a range of health recommendations. While most women reduce health compromising behaviors during pregnancy, many return to risky behaviors postpartum. We use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 Cohort (n = 1,476) to estimate latent cigarette smoking trajectories over the period of 1997-2013. First, we identify four common smoking trajectories over the course of pregnancy, including pregnancy-related reducers, long-term reducers, and chronic smokers. Next, we use Latent Class Analysis to group prenatal behavior risk factors (i.e., binge drinking, marijuana, drugs, and obesity) into meaningful health lifestyle classes. Finally, we find that both individual health behaviors and the identified health classes have strong, relationships with smoking trajectories. Results provide strong evidence for the importance of the prenatal period in future smoking patterns and suggest the importance of a multi-behavioral approach to health promotion.
	Bibliography Citation Saint Onge, Jarron, Sarah Smith and Taneisha Scheuermann. "Pre- and Post-Natal Maternal Smoking Trajectories: The Role of Multiple Health Behaviors and Behavioral-Risk Profiles." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

671.	Sanchez, Luis A.
671.	Segmented Paths? Generational Differences in the Transition to Homeownership Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Ethnic Differences; Hispanics; Home Ownership; Immigrants; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Racial Differences; Wealth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Homeownership represents an important indicator of immigrant incorporation and acculturation. It reflects an immigrant’s commitment to remain in the host country and serves as a vehicle of wealth accumulation. This paper uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979) to test theories of immigrant assimilation (straight-line vs. segmented) by focusing on generational patterns to first-time homeownership using a discrete time hazard model. I find an increase in the likelihood of first-time homeownership between Hispanic first and second generation. However, by the third generation I find Hispanics are experiencing significantly lower likelihoods of becoming a first-time homeowner in comparison to native-born whites. I did not find support for straight-line assimilation theory in terms of the transition homeownership but rather I found that black and Hispanic immigrants are experiencing segmented paths towards ownership and achieving the “American Dream.”
	Bibliography Citation Sanchez, Luis A. "Segmented Paths? Generational Differences in the Transition to Homeownership." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

672.	Sandberg-Thoma, Sara Kamp Dush, Claire M.
672.	Serial Cohabitation and Depressive Symptoms in Emerging Adulthood Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Depression (see also CESD); Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The prevalence of serial cohabitation has increased within the United States; additionally, the rates of serial cohabitation, or cohabiting with more than one partner, have also risen. However, serial cohabitation may have adverse emotional health consequences. In general, cohabitation has been associated with mental health declines, yet serial cohabitation may be driving this effect. Using a contemporary sample of emerging adults, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97; n = 7,528), we examine the influence of serial cohabitation on depressive symptoms. Pooled fixed effects regressions indicated that serial cohabitation is associated with decreased depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the cumulative number of serial cohabitations did moderate the association between experiencing a specific cohabitation transition (from no reported cohabiting unions to one cohabitation, and from one cohabitation to two cohabitations)and depressive symptoms; future cohabitations did magnify the association between each single cohabitation transition and depressive symptoms.
	Bibliography Citation Sandberg-Thoma, Sara and Claire M. Kamp Dush. "Serial Cohabitation and Depressive Symptoms in Emerging Adulthood." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

673.	Sandefur, Gary D. Cook, Steven T.
673.	Poverty and Welfare Duration Among Young Adults Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Education Indicators; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Fathers; Heterogeneity; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Poverty; Racial Differences; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper examines the poverty and welfare careers of young people during the period from late adolescence to young adulthood. During this period individuals are especially vulnerable to experiencing periods of poverty and to using public assistance programs. We describe differences in patterns of poverty and public assistance receipt for different racial and ethnic groups and for different social classes (as defined by parental education and fathers occupation. The study employs monthly data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to model welfare use for these age groups which are particularly vulnerable to becoming poor and/or using public assistance and to examine the appropriateness of different hazard models to describe the probability of exiting welfare programs. In addition parameters are included to capture the effects of unobserved heterogeneity on this probability.
	Bibliography Citation Sandefur, Gary D. and Steven T. Cook. "Poverty and Welfare Duration Among Young Adults." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

674.	Saperstein, Aliya Pickett, Robert Penner, Andrew M.
674.	Placing Racial Fluidity in Context Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Geocoded Data; Racial Differences; Racial Studies Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. As mounting evidence demonstrates that an individual's race is subject to change, the question increasingly becomes: under what circumstances is racial fluidity more or less likely? We draw on a geocoded national longitudinal survey that allows us to link individuals to the U.S. counties in which they live. Our analysis explores whether racial fluidity is more common in some places rather than others, and whether contextual characteristics help to predict the specific racial classification of individuals either in addition to, or instead of, their personal characteristics. The results demonstrate contextual variation in the social construction of race, and underscore the important role that place plays in 'making race' in the United States.
	Bibliography Citation Saperstein, Aliya, Robert Pickett and Andrew M. Penner. "Placing Racial Fluidity in Context." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

675.	Sassler, Sharon Addo, Fenaba Williams, Kristi
675.	Maternal Union Status and Youth Educational Attainment: Does Age at Birth Matter? Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Age at Birth; High School Completion/Graduates; Marital History/Transitions; Marital Status; Parents, Single Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent demographic trends indicate declines in teen childbirth, increases in non-marital childbearing, and shifts to more births to women in their twenties. Using data from the linked Children and Young Adult sample (N=2,865) of the NLSY79, this study examines the potential benefits to the offspring of women who delay childbirth. We investigate whether the children born to mothers who delay childbirth into their early and late twenties have more positive educational outcomes compared with children born to teen mothers. Results suggest youth born to teen and young adult mothers are less likely to graduate from high school than youth born to older mothers. And, this association remains robust to mother's marital status at birth. Our results highlight the diverging destinies faced by youth born to teen mothers and older mothers, but suggest that those born to young adult women (in their early 20s) may also face educational disadvantage.
	Bibliography Citation Sassler, Sharon, Fenaba Addo and Kristi Williams. "Maternal Union Status and Youth Educational Attainment: Does Age at Birth Matter?" Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

676.	Sassler, Sharon Levitte, Yael Glass, Jennifer L. Michelmore, Katherine
676.	The Missing Women in Science, Math, Engineering, and Behavioral Science Jobs? Accounting for Gender Differences in Entrance into STEM Occupations Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011. Also: http://paa2011.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=111615 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Outcomes; Gender Differences; Labor Force Participation; Occupational Segregation Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Despite the investment of considerable money to increase women's representation in undergraduate science and engineering education, gender imbalance in the science workplace remains. Women are now more likely than men to obtain a college degree, and in science, math, engineering and behavioral science (SMEB)-related fields of study, women's graduation rates since the 1970s have increased between two to ten times (Bell, 2010). Despite these educational gains, women's representation in the SMEB workforce remains low. As of 2003, women were only 27% of the SMEB workforce (National Science Board, 2008). In this paper, we examine the factors associated with entering into SMEB occupations and how this differs by gender. We assess whether differences in attitudes towards gender and family roles account for gender disparities in the likelihood of entering into SMEB occupations among young adults who received college degrees and majored in SMEB fields.
	Bibliography Citation Sassler, Sharon, Yael Levitte, Jennifer L. Glass and Katherine Michelmore. "The Missing Women in Science, Math, Engineering, and Behavioral Science Jobs? Accounting for Gender Differences in Entrance into STEM Occupations." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

677.	Schmidt, Amy
677.	Divorce and Marriage: Does the Marriage Wage Premium Matter? Presented: Philidelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Male Sample; Marital Dissolution; Marriage; Wages Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. There is a sizeable literature on the wage premium of married men. Nearly all of the studies in this area attempt to determine why this premium exists and, recently, why it has been falling. There is also a growing economic literature on marriage and divorce, which complements the large sociological, anthropological and demographic literatures on the same subject. This paper combines these two research areas by attempting to determine whether an individual's probability of marrying (if single) or divorcing (if married) is affected by the magnitude of his estimated premium. Micro data from the NLSY79 is used to follow more than 1500 white men over a twenty year period. Results are forthcoming.
	Bibliography Citation Schmidt, Amy. "Divorce and Marriage: Does the Marriage Wage Premium Matter?" Presented: Philidelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

678.	Schwartz, Christine R.
678.	Educational Homogamy in Marital and Cohabiting Unions: A Test of the Double Selection Hypothesis Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Assortative Mating; Cohabitation; Marriage; Modeling Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. I use log-linear models and data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) and the 1987-88 and 1992-94 waves of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) to compare the odds of educational homogamy in cohabitation and marriage. Preliminary results using NLSY79 data show that differences in the educational resemblance of married and cohabiting couples vary depending on the sample used and the point at which assortative mating patterns are measured. Cohabitors are much less likely to be educationally homogamous than married couples using a sample of prevailing unions. Restricting the sample to newly formed unions, however, eliminates this difference. Nevertheless, I find support for the hypothesis that couples who enter marriage via cohabitation are "doubly selected" and are more homogamous than cohabiting couples who split up. I find no difference in the resemblance of couples whose marriages are preceded by cohabitation and those marry without first cohabiting.
	Bibliography Citation Schwartz, Christine R. "Educational Homogamy in Marital and Cohabiting Unions: A Test of the Double Selection Hypothesis." Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

679.	Scott, Michael Pudrovska, Tetyana
679.	Do Individual Psychosocial Factors Mediate Critical Period Cohort Effects on Educational Attainment? Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children; Educational Attainment; I.Q.; Mortality; Pre-natal Care/Exposure Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study displays the mediation of individual psychosocial factors in early life on the in utero and neonatal environmental cohort effects on the educational attainment of women. By utilizing the National Longitudinal Survey of Young Women, part of the Original Cohorts and the CDC/NCHS National Vital Statistics System, we employ a regression-based mediation analysis to examine to what extent individual psychosocial factors (as measured by IQ) mediate the cohort effects of U.S. infant mortality rates at birth on the educational attainment of women at 25. The analysis suggests that infant mortality has a significant effect on IQ scores as well as on the educational attainment. A second analysis using the Goodman-Sobel tests of mediation indicates that the indirect cohort carries into IQ. Thus, IQ mediates critical period effects on educational attainment. These findings suggest that additional attention should be given to those in settings compromised by infection or environmental hazards.
	Bibliography Citation Scott, Michael and Tetyana Pudrovska. "Do Individual Psychosocial Factors Mediate Critical Period Cohort Effects on Educational Attainment?" Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

680.	Serrato, Carl A.
680.	Resolution of Premarital Pregnancies: What is the Role of Public Policy? Presented: Baltimore, MD, Population Association of America Meetings, 1989 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Abortion; Adolescent Fertility; Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC); Birth Rate; Childbearing, Adolescent; Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Family Planning; Fertility; Poverty; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Sex Education; State Welfare; Teenagers; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Since the 1960s the teenage birth rate has declined by almost half, yet teenage childbearing is still considered a major national concern. Underlying the overall decline in teenage fertility are a rising birth rate among single teenagers and an increase in the rates of teenage pregnancy and abortion. While many public programs (e.g., family planning services, sex education, parental consent laws) have been initiated with the purpose of reversing these trends, in some quarters it is the common wisdom that these programs, along with others (e.g., public assistance programs), are an important cause of teenage pregnancy and childbearing. Using the NLSY, the author examines the influence public policies may have on young women's decisions concerning how to resolve a premarital pregnancy: birth and marriage, birth and remaining single, or abortion.
	Bibliography Citation Serrato, Carl A. "Resolution of Premarital Pregnancies: What is the Role of Public Policy?" Presented: Baltimore, MD, Population Association of America Meetings, 1989.

681.	Sfekas, Andrew
681.	New Evidence on Whether Cigarette Taxes Reduce Youth Smoking Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Longitudinal Data Sets; Longitudinal Surveys; Methods/Methodology; Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID); Smoking (see Cigarette Use); Taxes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We present new evidence on the extent to which cigarette prices and taxes affect a youth's decision to start smoking. We use longitudinal data from the Tobacco-Use Supplements to the CPS, PSID, and NLSY97 to show that prices and taxes matter. We also resolve a puzzle in the empirical literature. Most studies that use longitudinal data find that the probability of initiation is uncorrelated with changes in taxes. This result contradicts standard economic theory that demand falls when prices increase and it stands in contrast with cross-sectional evidence showing lower smoking prevalence among youth when taxes are higher. We resolve this puzzle by showing that taxes reduce smoking uptake, affects casual smoking much less than regular smoking, and that some of the empirical contradictions stem from basic specification errors flowing from the particular longitudinal data used. The findings have important implications for domestic and international tobacco control and public health policy.
	Bibliography Citation Sfekas, Andrew. "New Evidence on Whether Cigarette Taxes Reduce Youth Smoking." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

682.	Shafer, Kevin M.
682.	Reconsidering Marital Exchange: A Comparison of First Marriage and Remarriage Patterns in the United States Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Gender Differences; Marriage; Parenthood; Remarriage; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Divorce and subsequent remarriage have become an important part of American family life in recent decades. However, there are significant gender differences in the likelihood and formation of remarriage. In first marriage, both men's and women's socioeconomic status is positively associated with first marriage formation—a move away from traditional marriage where men's, but not women's, economic status was important in the marriage market. However, empirical work focusing on the claim that first marriage and remarriage formation are similar is lacking. In this paper I analyze the individual characteristics associated with the likelihood of remarriage for men and women. The preliminary results show remarriage patterns consistent with traditional marriages where economic status has a positive effect on remarriage for men, but not for women. For women, family background, race/ethnicity, age and parental status are associated with remarriage. These results call for additional analyses which directly compare first marriage and remarriage.
	Bibliography Citation Shafer, Kevin M. "Reconsidering Marital Exchange: A Comparison of First Marriage and Remarriage Patterns in the United States." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

683.	Shafer, Kevin M. Pace, Garrett T.
683.	Gender Differences in Depression across Parental Roles Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Depression (see also CESD); Family Structure; Gender Differences; Parenthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Prior research has focused on the relationship between parenthood and psychological well-being with mixed results. Some studies have also addressed potential gender differences in this relationship, again yielding varied findings. One reason may be methodological choices pursued in these studies, including the lack of focus on combined parental roles (i.e., biological parent and stepparent). We use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979 (NLSY, n= 6276) and multinomial treatment models to address how combined roles influence depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers. Further, we explore potential gender differences. Our results indicate that numerous parental roles are negatively associated with psychological well-being for both men and women, while childlessness is negative for women, and specific parental role combinations affect mothers and fathers differently. Within the context of changing family structure in the U.S., these results help us understand any link how gendered parental roles can influence mental health.
	Bibliography Citation Shafer, Kevin M. and Garrett T. Pace. "Gender Differences in Depression across Parental Roles." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

684.	Shafer, Kevin M. Standiford, Kyle Hathcock, Russell, II,
684.	Age Assortative Mating in Second Marriages after Divorce Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Assortative Mating; Childbearing; Divorce; Fertility; Gender Differences; Marriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although remarriage after divorce is common in the United States, few studies have focused on the remarriage process. We address this shortcoming by focusing on age assortative mating patterns among remarried men and women using NLSY79. We pay particular attention to the effects of socioeconomic status, fertility intention, fertility history, and age on differences in age marital sorting. Our results indicate that each has important effects on age assortative mating for both men and women, though important gender differences are observed. Specifically, homogamy and hypergamy are most common among men, though the likelihood of each outcome varies across our key variables. Among women, remarriage is less common and age assortative mating outcomes are strongly related to age, while fertility intentions, fertility history, and socioeconomic status have smaller effects on sorting. The results have implications for understanding the remarriage market, gender dynamics in remarriage, and childbearing after divorce are considered.
	Bibliography Citation Shafer, Kevin M., Kyle Standiford and Russell Hathcock. "Age Assortative Mating in Second Marriages after Divorce." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

685.	Shandra, Carrie L.
685.	Job Characteristics and Job Retention of Young Workers With Disabilities Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Disabled Workers; Job Characteristics; Work Histories Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. People with disabilities experience lower labor force participation than people without disabilities in the US. Despite the focus on work promotion among this population, less is known about factors increasing job retention. This study utilizes longitudinal employment histories from NLSY97 to evaluate: How job characteristics differ by adolescent disability status, what job characteristics associate with the hazard of separation, and if the characteristics associated with the hazard of separation differ by adolescent disability status. Young workers with adolescent disabilities have a higher baseline hazard of separation than workers without disabilities. These results persist for involuntary separations (serious disability) and voluntary health-related separations (mild or serious disability), net of job characteristics. Employment benefits--medical, scheduling, leave, retirement--negatively associate with the hazard of separation for workers with disabilities. However, these effects persist for all workers, whereas job satisfaction, job sector, and work hours further condition the hazard of separation among workers with disabilities.
	Bibliography Citation Shandra, Carrie L. "Job Characteristics and Job Retention of Young Workers With Disabilities." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

686.	Shandra, Carrie L. Hogan, Dennis P. Chowdhury, Afra R.
686.	Differences in Young Women's First Sexual Experience by Disability Status Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Contraception; Disability; Family Planning; Sexual Experiences/Virginity Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. First intercourse is an important experience in the young adult life course. While previous research has examined racial, sex, and socioeconomic differences in the characteristics of first sex, less is known about differences by disability status. Using a sample of women from the NLSY97, this paper examines the association between disability and type of first sexual relationship, degree of discussion about birth control, use of birth control, and--among those who do not contracept--pregnancy wantedness. Regression analyses indicate that women with disabilities experience first intercourse in different types of relationships than women without disabilities. While we find no differences in discussion about or use of birth control by disability status, women with disabilities who do not contracept are more likely to want a pregnancy than women without disabilities. Results suggest family planning assistance might be most beneficial for young women with disabilities if provided before they become sexually active.
	Bibliography Citation Shandra, Carrie L., Dennis P. Hogan and Afra R. Chowdhury. "Differences in Young Women's First Sexual Experience by Disability Status." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

687.	Simon Thomas, Juli
687.	Variations in the Experience of Job Displacement for Single Mothers and the Effects on Their Children’s Educational Outcomes Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): CESD (Depression Scale); Children, Home Environment; College Enrollment; Depression (see also CESD); Displaced Workers; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Health Factors; Health, Mental/Psychological; High School Completion/Graduates; Layoffs; Marital Disruption; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Multilevel; Parents, Single; Propensity Scores; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Parental job displacement can lead to unemployment, but the length of unemployment following a displacement varies substantially, in some cases not occurring at all; additionally, job displacements can occur more than once during a parent’s career, and they can occur at a time of many or few other layoffs. Brand and Simon Thomas (2012) find significant decreases in high school completion and college attendance as well as increases in depression among children whose single mothers were displaced. This study examines variations in single mothers’ job displacement experiences and the effects on children’s educational outcomes, including high school completion, college attendance, public versus private school attendance, two-year versus four-year college attendance, and full- or part-time college attendance. The National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979, the Child-Mother File, and Mass Layoff Statistics are used to move toward a more nuanced understanding of the effects of parental job displacement on children’s educational outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Simon Thomas, Juli. "Variations in the Experience of Job Displacement for Single Mothers and the Effects on Their Children’s Educational Outcomes." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

688.	Simon, Jessica Way, Megan McDonald
688.	Returns to Education for Self-Employed US Millennials and the Self-Employment Gender Earnings Gap: A Quantile Regression Approach Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Returns; Gender Differences; Modeling, OLS; Self-Employed Workers; Wage Gap Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Self-employed women, though more highly educated than self-employed men, earn approximately 75% of male counterparts' earnings on an hourly basis. Could differing returns to education for self-employed men and women explain some of this gap? We examine economic returns to education for the most highly educated working generation, the Millennials, considering both human capital and signaling theory. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 cohort, we apply OLS and quantile regression to samples of both wage-employed and self-employed Millennial women and men. We find that, generally, returns to education do not differ between self-employed and wage-employed, or between male and female self-employed in this age group, suggesting that women would be experiencing an even higher gender wage gap without their educational edge over men. We also find some differences in returns to education along the income distribution, which may indicate a breakdown of signaling theory when applied to self-employment.
	Bibliography Citation Simon, Jessica and Megan McDonald Way. "Returns to Education for Self-Employed US Millennials and the Self-Employment Gender Earnings Gap: A Quantile Regression Approach." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

689.	Sipsma, Heather L. Hebert, Luciana
689.	Predicting Teenage Birth: A Latent Class Analysis Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Modeling, Latent Class Analysis/Latent Transition Analysis Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Rates of teenage births in the United States remain one of the highest among industrialized nations. Traditionally, regression modeling is used to determine risk factors, but this approach assumes each factor is independent from one another. As this scenario is often unrealistic, latent class analysis may confer additional value for identifying teenagers at risk for births under age 20. The current study uses secondary data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997. Analyses indicated the presence of 8 latent classes, which varied significantly across class indicators. Our unadjusted Cox proportional hazards model suggests class significantly predicts age at first birth under 20 years old (p<0.001). Furthermore, class membership remained significant after adjusting for the independent effects of the indicators used to construct the latent classes. Public health and health care practitioners should consider the clustering of effects as this approach confers important value for understanding risk of teenage births.
	Bibliography Citation Sipsma, Heather L. and Luciana Hebert. "Predicting Teenage Birth: A Latent Class Analysis." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

690.	Sironi, Maria Billari, Francesco
690.	Stay with Mommy and Daddy or Move Out? Consequences of the Age at Leaving Home in the United States Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Employment; Residence; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Leaving the parental home is a milestone in the transition to adulthood. Changes over time in the timing of leaving and the increasing share of young adults who return back home have been well documented. However, there is little research investigating the consequences of the timing and pathway of leaving home. We address this gap, examining the relationship between the timing and pathway of leaving home and economic and employment outcomes in early thirties. We use the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97), taking advantage of its longitudinal design and study young Americans born between 1980 and 1984, who are 27-31 years old in 2011. We find that the higher the age at leaving home the better are the working and especially the economic conditions of individuals between 27 and 31 years of age, albeit with a potential reversal of the effect at later ages of leaving home.
	Bibliography Citation Sironi, Maria and Francesco Billari. "Stay with Mommy and Daddy or Move Out? Consequences of the Age at Leaving Home in the United States." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

691.	Sironi, Maria Kashyap, Ridhi
691.	Internet Access and Partnership Formation in the United States Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Computer Use/Internet Access; Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Dating; Marriage; Sociability/Socialization/Social Interaction Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Unlike older communication technologies, the internet has broadened the scope for social interaction and enabled people to meet with people outside their existing social network. This feature of the technology is perhaps most salient for its role in helping people search for mates. While the internet may enlarge the pool of prospective partners, access to a larger pool may also delay the transition to partnership as the option for alternatives may induce individuals to search longer. We examine this effect of the internet on both heterosexual and homosexual partnership formation using nationally-representative data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and the Current Population Survey from the US. We find that while the effect of the internet on the transition to partnership is negative at younger ages, the effect of the internet on increasing the propensity to partner becomes positive as individuals become older, for both homosexual and heterosexual partnerships.
	Bibliography Citation Sironi, Maria and Ridhi Kashyap. "Internet Access and Partnership Formation in the United States." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

692.	Skalamera, Julie Hummer, Robert A. Walsemann, Katrina Michelle Humphries, Melissa
692.	Highest Earned Degree, Education in Years, and Health Behavior among U.S. Young Adults Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); College Degree; Educational Attainment; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Smoking (see Cigarette Use); Socioeconomic Status (SES); Substance Use Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Highly educated U.S. adults have better health and this relationship has strengthened among recent cohorts. One key pathway relating education to health is health behavior. This study describes the relationships between highest degree obtained, years of education, and health behavior among young adults; examines whether socioeconomic attainment mediates the relationships; and tests whether these relationships vary by gender. We focus on whether years of education, educational degrees, or both matter for more favorable health behavior. We use NLSY-97 data, which includes both quantity and credential education measures. Findings reveal that higher educational degrees are associated with more positive health behavior, while increasing years of education also matters net of degree attainment. Some differences across behaviors exist. Socioeconomic status mediates these relationships, but the effects are weak. Findings also show no notable gender differences. This research shows that both educational quantity and credentials matter quite strongly for favorable health behavior.
	Bibliography Citation Skalamera, Julie, Robert A. Hummer, Katrina Michelle Walsemann and Melissa Humphries. "Highest Earned Degree, Education in Years, and Health Behavior among U.S. Young Adults." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

693.	Smock, Pamela Jane Manning, Wendy D. Dorius, Cassandra J.
693.	The Intergenerational Transmission of Cohabitation and Marriage in the U.S.: The Role of Parental Union Histories Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Family Structure; Fathers, Influence; Fathers, Involvement; Gender Differences; Marital History/Transitions; Marriage; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Stepfamilies Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Over two decades ago, in his presidential address to the Population Association of America, demographer Larry Bumpass posed the question: “What’s Happening to the Family?” The issues he raised in that address motivate this paper. Most broadly, we are interested in tracing processes that may continue to fuel family change. Specifically, this paper investigates the intergenerational transmission of cohabitation and marriage, focusing on parents and their young adult children. This paper extends knowledge about linkages between parents’ cohabitation and marital histories and children’s own union formation behavior. We use data from 23 waves (1979-2008) of the 1979 National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY79) main youth and 2 waves (2008 and 2010) of the young adult (YA) survey.
	Bibliography Citation Smock, Pamela Jane, Wendy D. Manning and Cassandra J. Dorius. "The Intergenerational Transmission of Cohabitation and Marriage in the U.S.: The Role of Parental Union Histories." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

694.	Snidal, Matthew
694.	Incremental Punishment: School Discipline as a Continuous Variable Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Discipline; High School Completion/Graduates; School Suspension/Expulsion Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent work in sociology of education has looked at the impact of zero-tolerance policies within schools. Though school absence has received attention as continuous variable where more days of absence means worse graduation outcomes, school suspension has continued to be looked at as a binary variable. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1997), I analyze whether high school graduation outcomes are altered by the duration of suspension that students face. Results from my study show that suspension has an ongoing influence on graduation outcomes even when controlling for the number of school days missed for other reasons. This leads to a number of implications for how schools use punishment and suspension as well as how researchers should consider these school actions when studying discipline in the future.
	Bibliography Citation Snidal, Matthew. "Incremental Punishment: School Discipline as a Continuous Variable." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

695.	Snyder, Anastasia R. Jang, Bohyun
695.	Failure to Launch? Exits from and Returns to the Parental Home among Emerging Adults in the U.S. Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Coresidence; Gender Differences; Household Composition; Life Course; Racial Differences; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines exits from and returns to the parental home across two cohorts using data from the NLSY79 and NLSY97. Recent reports find that about 30% of young adults aged 25–34 lived with their parents at some point during the Great Recession, and 24% of 18–34 year olds returned to their parental home. The findings contribute to the existing literature because most recent studies documenting an alarming rise in coresidence with parents use cross sectional data and fail to take a dynamic view of home leaving and returning across the emerging adult life course. Our findings suggest that large differences in home leaving and returning do not exist between the NLSY79 and NLSY97 cohorts. Within cohort variability does however find significant variability in home leaving and returning by sex, race/ethnicity and reason for first exit.
	Bibliography Citation Snyder, Anastasia R. and Bohyun Jang. "Failure to Launch? Exits from and Returns to the Parental Home among Emerging Adults in the U.S." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

696.	Snyder, Anastasia R. Kotila, Letitia Jang, Bohyun
696.	The Significance of Marriage in Rural America Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Life Course; Marital History/Transitions; Rural/Urban Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines how marital experiences in the United States differ by residential location: nonmetro, suburban and central city residences. Previous studies find that significant differences in marital behavior can be observed by residence in the U.S. Specifically, nonmetro residents show a distinct affinity for marriage that is evidenced by earlier marriage, lower rates of divorce, shorter duration between divorce and remarriage, higher rates of remarriage. Overall, nonmetro women have been found to spend a larger share of their lives married compared to other women. The findings from these prior studies need to be more closely examined, however, because significant data limitations could have biased those findings. This study uses data from the NLSY79 to examine marital experiences across the life course and carefully measure is residential differences exist in marital behavior, and explanations for those differences, between nonmetro and other populations in the U.S.
	Bibliography Citation Snyder, Anastasia R., Letitia Kotila and Bohyun Jang. "The Significance of Marriage in Rural America." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

697.	Snyder, Anastasia R. Mernitz, Sara E. Jang, Bohyun
697.	The Transition to Adulthood Among the Forgotten Half: Home Leaving and Living Arrangement Among Less Educated Young Adults in the United States Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Exits; High School Completion/Graduates; Residence; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. College experiences during emerging adulthood are associated with various life course transitions for young adults, including leaving the family home and living independently, but little is known about how these patterns differ for those who do not attend college. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, we examined the timing of first parental home-leaving and the type of first living arrangement for young adults who do not pursue post- secondary education, comparing young men and women. Life table estimates found that young women exit the family home sooner after finishing high school, and most exit to live with a romantic partner, motivated in large part by early pregnancy. Discrete-time competing risk models found that, controlling for individual, family and contextual factors, female young adults exited earlier to live with a partner. Individual characteristics and family context are significantly associated with the timing and type of home leaving.
	Bibliography Citation Snyder, Anastasia R., Sara E. Mernitz and Bohyun Jang. "The Transition to Adulthood Among the Forgotten Half: Home Leaving and Living Arrangement Among Less Educated Young Adults in the United States." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

698.	Spearin, Carrie E.
698.	Children and the Union Formation Process: Using the NLSY79 to Examine Relationship Status for Men and Women over the Life Course Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=70680 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Family Formation; Family History; Fertility; Gender; Male Sample; Marriage; Modeling, Logit; Parenthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Marriage and parenthood in the U.S. have become increasingly decoupled during the 20th century, making children an active part of adult lives not only after marriage but also throughout the union formation process. However, the effect of children may differ significantly for men and women, largely due to the residential status of children. This paper investigates the role of children in union formation processes, focusing on the gender differences associated with the effect of children on the types of unions formed over the life course. Data from NLSY 1979 (1979-2004) are used to estimate a series of multinomial logit approximations of event history models to determine the odds of entering a specific relationship type for each year of a respondent's life. Results show the effect of children is similar in direction for both men and women, but is stronger for men even when child's residential status is taken into account.
	Bibliography Citation Spearin, Carrie E. "Children and the Union Formation Process: Using the NLSY79 to Examine Relationship Status for Men and Women over the Life Course." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

699.	Spence, Naomi J.
699.	Timing of Childbearing and Disability in Older Age Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=71518 Cohort(s): Mature Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at Birth; Childbearing; Fertility; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Mothers, Education; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Fertility is central to the life experiences of women. As such, it has consequences for all aspects of their lives and implications for their long-term well-being, yet how fertility matters in the later years is relatively unknown. Using data on a nationally representative cohort of women in the United States, I examine the relationship between the timing of childbearing and disability in later life as measured by functional limitations and ADL limitations with attention to the mediating effects of early life and adult social and economic circumstances and later life health. Preliminary results indicate that early and premarital initiation of childbearing is positively associated with disability, though these effects are accounted for by educational attainment and adult socioeconomic status, respectively. Late childbearing is also found to be associated with an increased likelihood of having ADL limitations, but again educational attainment and adult social and economic characteristics explain this relationship.
	Bibliography Citation Spence, Naomi J. "Timing of Childbearing and Disability in Older Age." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

700.	Spence, Naomi J.
700.	Timing of Childbearing and Disability in Older Age Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March-April 2006. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=71518 Cohort(s): Mature Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at Birth; Childbearing; Childbearing, Adolescent; Disability; Fertility; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Life Course; Mothers, Education Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Fertility is central to the life experiences of women. As such, it has consequences for all aspects of their lives and implications for their long-term well-being, yet how fertility matters in the later years is relatively unknown. Using data on a nationally representative cohort of women in the United States, I examine the relationship between the timing of childbearing and disability in later life as measured by functional limitations and ADL limitations with attention to the mediating effects of early life and adult social and economic circumstances and later life health. Preliminary results indicate that early and premarital initiation of childbearing is positively associated with disability, though these effects are accounted for by educational attainment and adult socioeconomic status, respectively. Late childbearing is also found to be associated with an increased likelihood of having ADL limitations, but again educational attainment and adult social and economic characteristics explain this relationship. I employ data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women (NLS-MW. Multistage probability sampling was used to draw a representative sample of 5,393 civilian, noninstitutionalized women aged 30-44 years in 1967, with an oversample of Black women (see US Department of Labor 2005 for more detailed information). Of those women, 94 percent participated in the baseline (1967) interview (N=5,083). Since then, the cohort has been interviewed a total of 20 times through 2003, when 2,237 (44 percent) of the original respondents were surveyed. Although the NLS-MW is well suited for studying the links between fertility timing and later life health, it is very well suited for the task. Data were gathered on the timing of women's childbearing, a wide range of socioeconomic status measures throughout the life course, and various dimensions of health in later life. Finally, the NLS-MW is one of the most extensive, long-running data collection efforts carr ied out with a cohort of Americans, providing a unique opportunity to study women at various life course stages with a sizeable sample to sustain multivariate analyses.
	Bibliography Citation Spence, Naomi J. "Timing of Childbearing and Disability in Older Age." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March-April 2006.

701.	Spitze, Glenna D.
701.	Effect of Wives' Employment on Family Migration Presented: Pittsburgh, PA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1983 Cohort(s): Mature Women, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Earnings; Employment; Job Status; Marriage; Migration; Wives, Work Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines the effect of a wife's employment on her family's probability of migration, testing hypotheses derived from economic migration theory and from sociological research on work and family life. Data for white married women from the NLS of Young and Mature Women are aggregated across two-year time periods and then disaggregated by age groups. Results indicate deterrent effects of both wife's employment and her income, a minor interaction between employment and job satisfaction, and none with sex-role attitude variables. There are distinct age patterns, with earnings playing a greater role in the 20s and employment status in the early 30s. After this point, wives' employment plays no part in the family migration process. Possible age and cohort interpretations are discussed. It is concluded that increasing levels of female labor force participation may slow general levels of migration somewhat, particularly for young couples.
	Bibliography Citation Spitze, Glenna D. "Effect of Wives' Employment on Family Migration." Presented: Pittsburgh, PA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1983.

702.	Spivey, Christy
702.	Desperation or Desire? The Role of Risk Aversion in Marriage Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionid=71472 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Marriage; Family Income; Gender Differences; Marriage; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Risk-Taking; Siblings Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The effect of an individual's risk aversion on time to marriage is examined using survival analysis. The financial risk aversion measure is based on a series of hypothetical gambles over family income that were offered to respondents of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. A search model predicts that the more risk averse the individual, the shorter the time to first marriage. The estimates support the theory, indicating that risk aversion significantly affects time to marriage, with more risk averse respondents marrying sooner than their more risk loving counterparts. Within-family analyses using sibling data reveal a similar pattern. In addition, the effect of risk aversion on time to marriage is larger in magnitude and more statistically significant for men. One possible explanation for the different results between the sexes is that women value risk aversion as a desirable trait in potential mates.
	Bibliography Citation Spivey, Christy. "Desperation or Desire? The Role of Risk Aversion in Marriage." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

703.	Staub, Kalina
703.	Marriage Patterns of Black Women: Education, Competition and the Shortage of Available Men Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Black Studies; Educational Attainment; Marriage; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Black women who drop out of high school are marrying at much lower rates than more educated black women. Previous studies have assumed independent marriage markets by education level. However, when we characterize marriage markets in this way, they seem to be the most favorable for the least educated women. Using a simple model of the marriage market from Becker (1981) that allows for integration in marriage markets across education levels, I show that any imbalance in sex ratios, especially at the top of the educational distribution, should cascade down to disproportionately impact the least educated women. Using data from the 1979-2004 waves of the NLSY79 and a discrete-time hazard framework, I include a sex ratio based on Becker's model that accounts for both the supply of men and the competition from more educated women. This "cascading" sex ratio is more effective in accounting for the educational differences in marriage.
	Bibliography Citation Staub, Kalina. "Marriage Patterns of Black Women: Education, Competition and the Shortage of Available Men." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

704.	Steidl, Ellyn Raley, Kelly
704.	Marital Quality and Educational Differences in Divorce Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Graduates; Divorce; Marital Satisfaction/Quality; Marital Stability; Relationship Conflict Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Over the past 30 years, the risk of divorce has increasingly diverged according to educational attainment. The purpose of this article is to understand why higher education is protective of marital stability. Two common theories--economic gains and non-cognitive skills--implicitly suggest that college graduates enjoy more stable marriages because of better marital quality. While the mechanism of marital quality is theoretically plausible, it has not been formally tested. Using the NLSY97 and Post-Secondary Transcript Study, we employ survival analysis to study whether closeness, conflict, and commitment explain educational differences in divorce. We find evidence that relationship characteristics do mediate some of the association between having a bachelor's degree and a lower divorce risk. Findings also suggest that certain relationship characteristics may be more important than others for marital stability. Our results support the idea that closeness has a stronger influence than either conflict or commitment in reducing the risk of divorce.
	Bibliography Citation Steidl, Ellyn and Kelly Raley. "Marital Quality and Educational Differences in Divorce." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

705.	Stevenson, Amanda
705.	The Effect of First Interbirth Interval on Women’s Poverty at Midlife Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Births, Repeat / Spacing; Childbearing; First Birth; Marital Status; Modeling, Instrumental Variables; Poverty; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The relationship between childbearing and socioeconomic status is complicated by multiple sources of endogeneity. Cross sectional and logintudinal designs cannot account for selection into childbearing patterns and thus cannot assess causal relationships between fertility and later life outcomes. Focusing on the timing of childbearing and union status through early and mid-adulthood, I use miscarriage to construct an instrument for delivery and build a counterfactual condition for having a short temporal space between births. Using this approach with data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, I estimate the effect on midlife poverty of having first and second births within 24 months of each other. My results indicate that these short interbirth intervals are causally related to increased midlife poverty. Extension of the work to illustrate the role of union status (continuous marriage since first birth versus all other union status histories) and midlife health as pathways is underway.
	Bibliography Citation Stevenson, Amanda. "The Effect of First Interbirth Interval on Women’s Poverty at Midlife." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

706.	Stewart, Holly Modrek, Sepideh Harrati, Amal
706.	Work-Life Trajectories in Young Adulthood: Insights Across Generations of American Women Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Labor Force Participation; Marital Status Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In the United States, generations of women differ substantially in their labor market and socialization experiences when young, and a rich social sciences literature registers salient changes in labor market participation, cohabitation, marriage, and parenthood over the past half-century. A more concerted study of patterning of sociodemographic variables in time may provide key insights regarding patterns of social stratification across generations as well as long-run outcomes including lifetime earnings, risk of poverty in old age, life-expectancy, and overall health. In the present study, we explore work-life trajectories in young adulthood across two generations of American women using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and 1997 and identify sociologically meaningful, parsimonious set of work-life trajectories within each generation using sequence analysis. The present study adds to previous efforts to characterize work-life trajectories through inclusion of "disemployment" and "cohabitation" in our definitions of employment status and marital status, respectively.
	Bibliography Citation Stewart, Holly, Sepideh Modrek and Amal Harrati. "Work-Life Trajectories in Young Adulthood: Insights Across Generations of American Women." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

707.	Stewart, Susan D.
707.	Race Differences in Nonresident Father Involvement: New Findings from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2002 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Fathers, Absence; Fathers, Involvement; Male Sample; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although the vast majority of African American children will live apart from their biological father, we currently have very limited information on nonresident father involvement among African Americans. This study investigates race differences in patterns of paternal involvement, focusing specifically on African American nonresident fathers. The analysis is based on nonresident fathers from the 1998 and 2000 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79). These data provide important new information on African American and White nonresident fathers' perceptions of the father role as well as the quantity and quality of contact with absent children. Additionally, we exploit the longitudinal nature of this data set and examine race differences in paternal involvement over time. Continued lack of attention to African American nonresident fathers is problematic given that nonresident fatherhood is such a prominent feature of African American family life.
	Bibliography Citation Stewart, Susan D. "Race Differences in Nonresident Father Involvement: New Findings from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2002.

708.	Stewart, Susan D.
708.	Sociology of African American Nonresident Fatherhood Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Fathers and Children; Fathers, Absence; Fathers, Involvement; Male Sample; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Researchers commonly compare the parental involvement of black and white nonresident fathers without considering the unique life circumstances of African American men. Using a sample of men drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79), this study examines the characteristics of African American and white nonresident fathers. Unlike previous research, nonresident fathers are separated into men who were married, cohabiting, and not in a union at the time of their child's birth. Given dramatic race differences in family formation patterns, this may be a potentially important distinction. Moreover, this study examines a wider array of men's characteristics than have prior studies, such as the planning status of the child, time spent working nonstandard hours, church attendance, and support from extended family members. The results of this study will provide insight into African American nonresident fathers' lives and will have important implications for social policy aimed at increasing African American men's involvement with their children.
	Bibliography Citation Stewart, Susan D. "Sociology of African American Nonresident Fatherhood." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

709.	Stritzel, Haley
709.	Grandparent Coresidence and Foster Care Entry Over Time: Evidence From the NLSY79 and NLSY97 Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Coresidence; Foster Care; Grandparents; Mothers, Adolescent Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Over the past few decades, an increasing proportion of children live with their grandparents, either with their parents in multigenerational households or with no parents present. At the same time, more children are entering the foster care system. Although research has considered the implications of foster care and grandparent coresidence for child well-being separately, fewer studies have considered links between these two trends. This study uses data on children born to teenage mothers in the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth 1979 and 1997 and multinomial discrete-time hazard models to investigate the predictors of entering foster or kinship care. Results indicated that grandparent coresidence reduced the risk of foster care entrance among children born to adolescent mothers in the 1979, but not 1997, cohort. These results support the hypothesis that the additional requirements and limitations imposed by the 1996 welfare reform weakened the role grandparents previously played in maintaining family preservation.
	Bibliography Citation Stritzel, Haley. "Grandparent Coresidence and Foster Care Entry Over Time: Evidence From the NLSY79 and NLSY97." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

710.	Strully, Kate W. Rehkopf, David Xuan, Ziming
710.	Liberal Welfare State Policies and Health: The Effect of The Earned Income Tax Credit on Child Well-Being Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America (PAA) 2008 Annual Meeting, April 17-19, 2008 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Birth Outcomes; Birthweight; Child Development; Child Health; Children, Poverty; Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC); Height; Poverty Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this analysis, we investigate the health effects of liberal welfare state policies by examining how enactments and expansion of state and national earned income tax credit (EITC) programs impact the health of the children of the working poor. Using two data sources — Children of the NLSY79 and U.S. Natality Data — to conduct a difference-in-difference analysis, we examine the effect of the EITC on birth weight, preterm birth, and child height.
	Bibliography Citation Strully, Kate W., David Rehkopf and Ziming Xuan. "Liberal Welfare State Policies and Health: The Effect of The Earned Income Tax Credit on Child Well-Being." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America (PAA) 2008 Annual Meeting, April 17-19, 2008.

711.	Su, Jessica Houston
711.	Better for Baby? Premarital Conceptions, Shotgun Marriage, and Child Well-Being among Children Born to Young Mothers Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Children, Well-Being; Home Environment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Marriage; Maternal Employment; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Propensity Scores Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The retreat from post-conception marriage has contributed to increasing rates of nonmarital birth in recent decades (England, Wu, and Shafer 2012). Concern about single-parent families has motivated marriage promotion policies, yet research has not examined whether post-conception, pre-birth marriages are associated with better child well-being. Drawing on a sample of black and white mothers with premarital conceptions from the NLSY79, our study fills this gap. Using propensity score techniques, we find that post-conception marriages are not associated with children's behavior problems or math scores, but are associated with higher reading comprehension scores among white children. They are also associated with improved parenting quality among white and black mothers. We find that, among white children, the benefits are strongest for those whose mothers are the least likely to enter into post-conception marriages. Among black children, the benefits are concentrated among those who are the most likely to enter such an arrangement.
	Bibliography Citation Su, Jessica Houston. "Better for Baby? Premarital Conceptions, Shotgun Marriage, and Child Well-Being among Children Born to Young Mothers." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

712.	Su, Jessica Houston Addo, Fenaba
712.	Wealth and Unintended First Births Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Fertility; Wealth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Unintended fertility is concentrated among relatively disadvantaged groups, such as racial minorities, unmarried adults, and those with low levels of education, but the factors that underlie these disparities are unclear. In this paper, we examine whether differences in wealth contribute to or explain patterns of unintended fertility, drawing on data from the NLSY79. Preliminary results suggest that wealth is negatively related to the probability of having an unintended first birth; each decile increase in the wealth distribution is associated with a 10% decrease in the odds of having an unintended first birth, even after controlling for a host of sociodemographic characteristics such as race, marital status, education, and wages. Although wealth does not account for racial and marital status disparities in unintended birth, our preliminary results provide evidence that it is an independent, significant, and heretofore overlooked correlate of pregnancy intentions.
	Bibliography Citation Su, Jessica Houston and Fenaba Addo. "Wealth and Unintended First Births." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

713.	Sugland, Barbara W.
713.	Perceptions of Educational Opportunity Transition to First Birth: An Empirical Assessment of the Opportunity Cost Hypothesis Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): NLS General Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Education Indicators; Educational Aspirations/Expectations; Educational Attainment; Educational Returns; Fertility; First Birth; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper explores the relationship between perceived educational opportunities and the likelihood of first birth. A cohort of 1,747 14 to 16 year old females surveyed during the first five waves (1979-1983) of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, comprise the study sample. Findings show educational ambitions among non-whites are significantly lower than those of whites (p<0.01). However, perceptions of educational opportunities influence the transition to first birth of among white females (p<0.01), but have no substantial impact on the transition to first birth among non-whites. This study suggest that perceptions of educational opportunity may affect the risk of first birth for white women, hut may not support the "nothing to lose" hypothesis of early childbearing for non-whites.
	Bibliography Citation Sugland, Barbara W. "Perceptions of Educational Opportunity Transition to First Birth: An Empirical Assessment of the Opportunity Cost Hypothesis." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

714.	Sugland, Barbara W. Blumenthal, Connie Moore, Kristin Anderson
714.	Social Capital and the Normative Order of Life Events Among At-Risk Female Youth Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Disadvantaged, Economically; Event History; First Birth; High School Completion/Graduates; Labor Force Participation; Life Cycle Research; Marriage; Racial Differences; School Completion Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper explores the mediating effects of family-based social capital on the normative order of life events among at-risk female youth. Data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Young Women are used to examine the transition to: 1) high school completion, 2) consistent labor force participation, 3) first birth, and 4) first marriage. Female adolescents 14 to 16 years of age in 1968 constitute the study sample. Young women are observed for a period of 20 years (1968 to 1988). Findings indicate strong racial disparities in the dominant order of life events for young women. Specifically, whites are significantly more likely than blacks to complete high school before any other life event. Black women are significantly more likely than white women to experience a first birth prior to a transition to work, school completion, or marriage, and enter the labor force last in the sequence of observed life events. The normative order of life trajectories is unaffected by risk status, irrespective of race. Exposure to family-based social capital increases the likelihood of high school completion and stable employment before marriage and childbearing, particularly among at-risk black women. Social capital also significantly contributes to eventual high school completion among young school-age mothers. The need to examine cultural differences in the normative order of life events, and the need for further exploration of positive supports disadvantaged families provide for their children is discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Sugland, Barbara W., Connie Blumenthal and Kristin Anderson Moore. "Social Capital and the Normative Order of Life Events Among At-Risk Female Youth." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

715.	Sun, Shengwei
715.	Changing Patterns, Persisting Logic: Racial Inequality in Young Men's Transition to Paid Care Work Jobs Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Occupations, Male; Occupations, Non-Traditional; Racial Equality/Inequality; Wage Penalty/Career Penalty; Wages, Men Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Men have slowly increased their presence in paid care work jobs that have long been considered as "women’s jobs" in the United States. This trend has taken place in the context of economic restructuring since the 1970s, with the U.S. job structure becoming polarized between "good" jobs and "bad" jobs in terms of pay and job security. The growth of paid care work jobs is characterized by racial disparity, but the mechanisms behind the racialized patterns remain unclear. Using individual-level data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 79 and 97, this study examines the determinants of entering low-paying versus well-paying care work jobs among two cohorts of young men who joined the workforce under different labor market conditions. Findings suggest changing patterns of racial inequality corresponding to larger job growth patterns since the 1980s. I argue that a persisting logic of a racialized "labor queue" underlies these changing patterns.
	Bibliography Citation Sun, Shengwei. "Changing Patterns, Persisting Logic: Racial Inequality in Young Men's Transition to Paid Care Work Jobs." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

716.	Suter, Larry E.
716.	A 1966 Replication of the 1962 Occupational Changes in a Generation Analysis of Older Men: Path Models as Indicators of Social Change Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, 1971 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Duncan-Blau Survey; Educational Attainment; Family Resources; Fathers, Influence; Occupations; Schooling; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper used the l966 survey of Older Men to duplicate path models presented by Duncan and Blau for white and black men in l962. The models used education and occupation (status scores) of father, educational attainment of son, occupation (status scores) and current total income. Few changes in coefficients were observed between the two surveys. Some change in the effect of education on income for black men was attributed to changes in conditions during the period of the l960's.
	Bibliography Citation Suter, Larry E. "A 1966 Replication of the 1962 Occupational Changes in a Generation Analysis of Older Men: Path Models as Indicators of Social Change." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, 1971.

717.	Sweeney, Megan Mcdonnell
717.	Women, Men, and Changing Families: The Shifting Economic Foundations of Marriage Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Men, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Economics of Gender; Employment; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Family Models; Family Studies; Gender Differences; Marriage; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The purpose of this paper is to understand how the relationship between economic prospects and marriage may have changed over the last few decades, with an emphasis on exploring the potential differences between men and women. Given great change in the economic context in which men and women make decisions about relationships since the late 1960s, it is expected that the correlates of marriage may have shifted. This paper uses discrete-time hazard models to analyze data from multiple cohorts of the National Longitudinal Surveys (young women, young men, and youth samples). The effects of economic and employment characteristics on entry into first marriage are compared for 'early' and 'late' baby boom cohorts of men and women. Particular attention is paid to how these effects may have changed differently for blacks and whites.
	Bibliography Citation Sweeney, Megan Mcdonnell. "Women, Men, and Changing Families: The Shifting Economic Foundations of Marriage." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997.

718.	Sykes, Bryan L. Pettit, Becky
718.	Choice or Constraint? Mass Incarceration and Fertility Outcomes among American Men Presented: Detroit, MI, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2009. Also: http://paa2009.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=91004 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Demography; Fertility; Incarceration/Jail; Racial Differences; Socioeconomic Background Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The rapid growth of the prison system over the last three decades represents a critical institutional intervention in the lives of U.S. families, which may have far-reaching and unintended consequences for demographic processes. In this paper, we investigate how exposure to the criminal justice system affects micro fertility decisions and aggregate fertility patterns. We propose to examine fertility choice and constraint within a counterfactual framework to assess whether and to what extent institutionalization has restricted and lowered the parity of men, and we theorize about how exogenous institutional factors (the penal system) have altered partnership selection in such a way that accounts for observed changes in non-marital, multi-partnered and teenage fertility. Our findings may help to explain growing disparities in fertility patterns by race and class.
	Bibliography Citation Sykes, Bryan L. and Becky Pettit. "Choice or Constraint? Mass Incarceration and Fertility Outcomes among American Men." Presented: Detroit, MI, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2009.

719.	Tan, Ruoding Bennett, Neil G.
719.	Spouse Selection the Second Time Around Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Homogamy; Marriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Based on a nationally representative sample drawn from the 1979-2008 waves of National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79), we examine the changes in spousal choice that occur between women’s first and second unions in the context of a changing pool of available potential spouses on various dimensions, including age, educational level at marriage, and race. Specifically, we test two hypotheses: (1) The supply of marriageable men is associated with women’s spousal choice in first and in second marriages, and (2) If the number of available single men as potential husbands is limited, women are forced to “cast a wider net” and marry men very different from themselves. We find empirical evidence that lends support to these hypotheses. Our results show that a more diverse and smaller pool of marriageable men will limit women’s ability to realize their changing preferences and lower the likelihood of a homogamous match in second marriages.
	Bibliography Citation Tan, Ruoding and Neil G. Bennett. "Spouse Selection the Second Time Around." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

720.	Tanfer, Koray Huang, Penelope Maria
720.	Male Fertility and the Intendedness Status of Births 1982-1998 Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Alcohol Use; CESD (Depression Scale); Fatherhood; Fathers; Fathers and Children; Fertility; Male Sample; Substance Use; Well-Being Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this paper we document the extent and patterns of unintended fertility among adult men and examine the effects of having an unintended birth on the well-being of the father. The specific well-being outcomes considered are alcohol and drug use and depressive symptoms. The consequences of an unintended birth are assessed relative to the consequences of having a birth that was neither intended nor unintended, a birth that was intended, and having no birth during the observation period. We use data from the 1982-1998 rounds of the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth (NLSY) and the 1994-2000 rounds of the NLSY Young Adult surveys. The NLSY sample we use consists of men who were 14-21 years of age when they were first surveyed in 1979, and NLSY mothers' male children who were 14-23 years of age in 1994, when they were designated as the "Young Adult" sample.
	Bibliography Citation Tanfer, Koray and Penelope Maria Huang. "Male Fertility and the Intendedness Status of Births 1982-1998." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002.

721.	Teachman, Jay D. Anderson, Carter Tedrow, Lucky M.
721.	Military Service and Alcohol Use Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Alcohol Use; Gender Differences; Military Service; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Veterans Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. It is well known that enlistees and veterans are more likely to use alcohol than civilians. However, most of this research is potentially biased in that it often does not employ control variables and is based on cross-sectional data. Much of this research also fails to consider the relationship between military service and alcohol use among women. Using longitudinal data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Study of Youth, we investigate the relationship between military service and alcohol use using a fixed-effects approach. We find that military service appears to encourage young men to consume alcohol. Also, the effect of military service is not limited to the time that men spend in the military in that male veterans are also more likely to consume alcohol than are comparable civilians. We find, however, that women who serve, both enlistees and veterans, are less likely to drink than their civilian counterparts.
	Bibliography Citation Teachman, Jay D., Carter Anderson and Lucky M. Tedrow. "Military Service and Alcohol Use." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

722.	Tedrow, Lucky M.
722.	Social Disengagement and Military Enlistment: A Discrete-Time Event History Analysis Using the NLSY97 Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Delinquency/Gang Activity; Life Course; Military Enlistment; Military Service; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Substance Use; Veterans Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Previous research suggests that being in the military leads veterans to engage in violent behavior. This research usually compares veterans to non-veterans, ignoring the possibility that people engaging in the troubled or violent behaviors may be more likely to enlist. The analysis presented in this paper improves upon previous research by employing a cumulative number of household moves experienced by the respondent, a comprehensive delinquency index and an index of substance use to assess the effect of social disengagement on enlistment for both males and females using the data available from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Another improvement over previous research is the use of a discrete time event history model of the time to enlistment that enables inclusion of numerous time-varying variables. Both the delinquency index and the cumulative number of moves are significantly related to military enlistment. The substance use index was not related to enlistment.
	Bibliography Citation Tedrow, Lucky M. "Social Disengagement and Military Enlistment: A Discrete-Time Event History Analysis Using the NLSY97." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

723.	Tedrow, Lucky M. Pendergast, Philip
723.	The Relationship Between Veteran Status and Smoking Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011. Also: http://paa2011.princeton.edu/mobile/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=112314 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Smoking (see Cigarette Use); Veterans Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. About 10-12% of young men have served a term in the military. However, we know rather little about the consequences of military service for the lives of those who serve. In this paper, we provide estimates of the relationship between peacetime military service during the All-volunteer Era (AVE) and smoking behaviors using data taken from the National Longitudinal Survey of 1979 (NLSY-79). Ever smoking and continued smoking by veterans are strongly related to multiple dimensions of poor health (Bondurant and Wedge 2009; Cornfield, Haenszel, Hammond, Lilienfeld, Shimkin and Wynder 2009; Wynder 1988). Using multivariate logistic regression with numerous controls for selectivity into the military, we find that veterans of active-duty military service are similar to veterans of reserve duty on ever having smoked and that veterans of active duty military service are less likely to stop smoking. Both social and institutional influences are offered as potential reasons for the differences.
	Bibliography Citation Tedrow, Lucky M. and Philip Pendergast. "The Relationship Between Veteran Status and Smoking." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

724.	Thomas, Christopher Tan, Ruoding Bennett, Neil G.
724.	Structural Opportunity and Individual Preference: The Determinants of Spouse Selection in Second Marriages Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Assortative Mating; Marital History/Transitions; Remarriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In the context of fundamental changes in union formation, union dissolution, and assortative mating in the U.S. in recent decades, we still do not fully understand the structural and individual factors driving spouse selection the second time around. Based on a nationally representative sample drawn from the 1979-2014 waves of the geocoded National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we test three hypotheses: 1) Women's spousal choice in first and in second marriages is associated with the composition of the local pool of unmarried men; 2) if the number of available single men as potential husbands is limited, a woman will be more likely to marry heterogamously; and 3) independent of the composition of remarriage markets, divorced women will change their preference toward homogamy in the second marital search. We find preliminary empirical evidence supporting these hypotheses, suggesting that changes in spouse selection in second marriages are due to both structural changes in remarriage markets and changing individual preferences.
	Bibliography Citation Thomas, Christopher, Ruoding Tan and Neil G. Bennett. "Structural Opportunity and Individual Preference: The Determinants of Spouse Selection in Second Marriages." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

725.	Thomas, Jason R. Oi, Katsuya
725.	The Development of Early Skills: Self-Productivity and Cross-Fertilization Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); British Cohort Study (BCS); Child Development; Human Capital; NCDS - National Child Development Study (British); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Skill Formation Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Cunha and Heckman (2007) have developed a model of human capital formation that identifies a key feature of the developmental process – “self-productivity.”This concept refers to the notion that capabilities developed by time t - 1 enhance capabilities at later stages of development (e.g. at time t). An interesting corollary is that one dimension of development (e.g. non-cognitive or social skills) fosters the develop of different dimensions of development at later stages of life (e.g. cognitive skills). This paper offers simple tests of the process of “self-productivity” using several different longitudinal data sets that contain repeated measures of cognitive and non-cognitive skills. To the extent that we find empirical support for the model developed by Cunha and Heckman (2007), the implications of the model – namely, the importance of early and continued investments in early life – should receive attention in the policy arena.
	Bibliography Citation Thomas, Jason R. and Katsuya Oi. "The Development of Early Skills: Self-Productivity and Cross-Fertilization." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

726.	Thomeer, Mieke Reczek, Corinne
726.	Coresidential Patterns by Parents' and Children's Health Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Coresidence; Health, Mental/Psychological; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Residence, Return to Parental Home/Delayed Homeleaving Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Rates of coresidence between young adults and their parents have increased in recent years. Past studies have considered predictors of coresidence, including economic characteristics, demographic characteristics, and parental characteristics. Yet few studies consider the role of health, and specifically the interplay of parents' and adult children's health. In this study, we analyze the NLSY79-YA and NLSY79 (N=3,516) with hazard models to examine how the health of adult children, their mothers, and their fathers shapes risk of exiting parents' household as well as the risk of "boomeranging" back into the parental home. Results indicate that health outcomes operate in different ways; mothers' and children's worse mental health increase the risk of a child moving out, but mothers' health limitations decrease risk of moving out. Further, health operates differently for re-entry compared to exit-- for example, children's health is associated with risk of moving out but not risk of reentering parents' home.
	Bibliography Citation Thomeer, Mieke and Corinne Reczek. "Coresidential Patterns by Parents' and Children's Health." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

727.	Thyden, Naomi Schmidt, Nicole Osypuk, Theresa L.
727.	The Unequal Distribution of Nuclear Family Deaths by Race and Its Effect on Attaining a College Degree Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childhood Adversity/Trauma; College Degree; Educational Attainment; Mortality; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Young adults of color may be more likely to experience the death of a parent or sibling, since early mortality is more prevalent among certain racial/ethnic groups than whites. However, little research has investigated whether the devastating experience of nuclear family death varies by race, or how this death may affect important social determinants of health. Multiple logistic regression results using the longitudinal NLSY97 data showed that experiencing the death of a parent or sibling during early adulthood (ages 19-22) was significantly and negatively associated with obtaining a Bachelor's degree by ages 29-32 (OR=0.55, 95% CI =0.38, 0.81) compared to those not experiencing a family death. Family death during adolescence (ages 13-18) was not significantly associated with obtaining a Bachelor's degree. Because family deaths during early adulthood are associated with lower educational attainment, an important social determinant of health, this exposure may contribute to subsequent health disparities by race.
	Bibliography Citation Thyden, Naomi, Nicole Schmidt and Theresa L. Osypuk. "The Unequal Distribution of Nuclear Family Deaths by Race and Its Effect on Attaining a College Degree." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

728.	Tumin, Dmitry Han, Siqi Qian, Zhenchao
728.	Meanings and Measures of Marital Separation Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Marital Disruption; Marital Status; National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Marital separation is an informal disruption of a marriage that may precede or substitute for a divorce. Data on marital separation have been collected from community and nationally representative samples, but the differences among measures of separation have not been examined. Our study analyzes the prevalence, resolution and duration of marital separations among ever-married women born between 1961 and 1965, using data from nationally representative cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys. Many women report living apart from their first husband, but inferring separations from data on when couples stop living together overestimates marital separations relative to a longitudinal measure that lets respondents define “separation” themselves. Retrospective and longitudinal measures produce different estimates of the proportion of separations ending in divorce, and of separations’ median duration. These discrepancies point to a gap between people’s experience of living apart from their spouse and their perception of separation as a distinct marital state.
	Bibliography Citation Tumin, Dmitry, Siqi Han and Zhenchao Qian. "Meanings and Measures of Marital Separation." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

729.	Tumin, Dmitry Qian, Zhenchao
729.	Marital Separation, Divorce, and Health Consequences Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Divorce; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Marital Disruption; Marital Dissolution; Marital Instability Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Marital separation is legally and socially ambiguous. Does it indicate an end of a marriage or a process of reconciliation? Little is known about the duration of separation and why some initiate separation and others divorce right away. It is also unclear whether negative health consequences associated with divorce apply to separation. We explore marital separations in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort. Separation is commonplace: 60% of first marriages lead to separations and 54% of first divorces are preceded by separations. Minorities, women with young children, and the less educated tend to separate rather than divorce and tend to remain separated longer. Negative health consequences of separation are statistically indistinguishable from those of divorce. Our results suggest that disadvantaged, vulnerable populations tend to remain separated and the health consequences are likely to be longer lasting for them than for those whose divorces were not preceded by separation.
	Bibliography Citation Tumin, Dmitry and Zhenchao Qian. "Marital Separation, Divorce, and Health Consequences." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

730.	Tumin, Dmitry Qian, Zhenchao
730.	Marital Transitions and Short-Term Weight Changes Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Marital Disruption; Marital Instability; Mortality; Obesity; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Marital transitions cause changes in diet and activity patterns that affect weight. Marriage is linked to weight gain, while marital exit is linked to weight loss. But it is uncertain whether the weight changes that follow marital transitions are significant enough to affect health. We draw on the epidemiological literature to identify short-term weight changes linked to an increased risk of all-cause mortality. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth '79, we test whether recent marriages, divorces and separations affect the odds of experiencing various mortality-linked weight changes. We find that marriage predicts large weight gain and transition to obesity, outcomes that are linked to greater mortality risk. Notably, only a minority of newlyweds experience either outcome in the first two years of marriage. We also find that marital exits do not predict greater incidence of hazardous weight change, including weight loss, in early adulthood and midlife.
	Bibliography Citation Tumin, Dmitry and Zhenchao Qian. "Marital Transitions and Short-Term Weight Changes." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

731.	Tumin, Dmitry Zheng, Hui
731.	Propensity to Marry and Heterogeneity in the Health Benefits of Marriage Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Depression (see also CESD); Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Heterogeneity; Marriage; Propensity Scores Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Marriage is associated with good health, but the protective effect of marriage varies widely, such that some people experience substantial health benefits from marriage and others experience no benefit. Our study explores if the marriage effect on health is moderated by the likelihood of marrying. Using propensity score methods, we test for heterogeneity in the marriage effect on self-rated health and a scale of depressive symptoms in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979 cohort. We find only modest differences in the marriage effect between the married and the unmarried, and no evidence that the marriage effect is positively or negatively associated with the propensity to marry. Our findings suggest that when the likelihood of marriage is defined as a composite of many early-life factors, it does not substantially moderate the health benefits of marriage, contradicting the hypothesis that the same factors discouraging marriage also make marriage less beneficial.
	Bibliography Citation Tumin, Dmitry and Hui Zheng. "Propensity to Marry and Heterogeneity in the Health Benefits of Marriage." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

732.	Tunalilar, Ozcan White, Robert G.
732.	Constructing Comparable Cohorts Using the NLSY79-CHYA: A Propensity Score Weighting Approach Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Mobility, Social; Propensity Scores; Sampling Weights/Weighting Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Children in the NLSY79-CHYA are not representative of their cohorts in the population due to design effects, rendering the dataset impractical to study the period-driven mechanisms of educational and economic mobility in the United States. This is unfortunate considering the richness of the dataset in terms of family history and measures of socioemotional development alongside other benefits. In the current study, we adopt a propensity score weighting procedure to construct and analyze multiple, comparable birth cohorts to study the changing importance of socioemotional skills in educational mobility in the United States. This approach allows accounting for changes in the distributions of family background between cohorts and constructing cohorts suitable for period-driven comparisons. The results are promising for potentially expanding the use of the NLSY79-CHYA in empirical research related to social mobility and inequality.
	Bibliography Citation Tunalilar, Ozcan and Robert G. White. "Constructing Comparable Cohorts Using the NLSY79-CHYA: A Propensity Score Weighting Approach." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

733.	Tunalilar, Ozcan White, Robert G.
733.	Pathways to Childlessness in the United States: A Group-Based Analysis of Employment and Marital Union Trajectories Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Educational Attainment; Labor Force Participation; Marital Status Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The rate of permanent childlessness has been increasing in the United States for the last three decades. To identify distinct origins of childlessness, I examine lifetime patterns of education, employment and marriage between the ages of 18 and 44. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979-2010), I identify trajectories of educational attainment, labor force attachment and marital status separately for men and women, and link them to likelihood of remaining childless. White, never-married men and women are more likely to remain childless. Family background has differential effects for remaining childless by sex. Early transition to labor force was highly influential for women’s likelihood of remaining childless but not for men’s. The reverse was true for the effect of timing of first marriage. The distinct trajectories men and women follow to childlessness illustrates the lifelong patterns of accumulating risks for childlessness.
	Bibliography Citation Tunalilar, Ozcan and Robert G. White. "Pathways to Childlessness in the United States: A Group-Based Analysis of Employment and Marital Union Trajectories." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

734.	Tunalilar, Ozcan White, Robert G.
734.	The Growing Importance of Socioemotional Skills for Academic Achievement in the United States Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Achievement; Attention/Attention Deficit; Behavior, Antisocial; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Schooling; Social Emotional Development Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Evidence that socioemotional skills related to attentiveness and anti-social behavior are closely tied to academic achievement underscores the importance of the broad range of skills required for school success in modern America. Using two birth cohorts born during early 1980s and 1990s, we find that the importance of these skills is a relatively recent phenomenon. We select two cohorts of adolescents from the NLSY97 and the children of the NLSY79 to assess changes in the effects of attentiveness and anti-social behaviors in models of school achievement. We adopt a propensity score weighting procedure to account for changes in the distributions of family background between cohorts and construct cohorts suitable for comparison. The estimated increase in the effect of socioemotional skills for achievement illustrates how these skills present an emerging additional axis for educational inequalities.
	Bibliography Citation Tunalilar, Ozcan and Robert G. White. "The Growing Importance of Socioemotional Skills for Academic Achievement in the United States." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

735.	Ueyama, Maki Simon, Kosali Ilayperuma
735.	How Does Parental Education Affect Infant Health? Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=71624 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Child Health; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Mortality; Mothers, Education; Mothers, Health Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. It is often asserted that the more education a woman has, the healthier will be her children. Establishing whether education causes a parent to invest more in the health of her child is complicated by difficult statistical problems. These mostly revolve around the hypothesis that unobserved factors cause a parent to invest in both her child's health and her own education. Following Currie and Moretti (2003), we use instrumental variable methods to consider education decisions at the high school/college margin and extend the investigation to include education decisions about high school completion. To date, no study has used nationally representative data to examine whether and how parental high school completion affects infant health. We use the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and a unique set of state educational policy instruments. We also explore mechanisms through which education might cause a woman to invest differently in her child's health.
	Bibliography Citation Ueyama, Maki and Kosali Ilayperuma Simon. "How Does Parental Education Affect Infant Health?" Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

736.	Upchurch, Dawn M. Astone, Nan Marie McCarthy, James
736.	Influences of Family Background on Adolescent Childbearing: From the 1940s to the 1980s Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990 Cohort(s): Mature Women, NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Childbearing; Childbearing, Adolescent; Fertility; First Birth; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mothers, Education; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The purpose of this paper is to begin to examine whether or not the influences of background and other characteristics on adolescent childbearing have changed across three birth cohorts of women. Two specific questions were addressed. First, have the effects of background factors on adolescent childbearing changed for women born in the 1930s, the 1950s and the 1960s? Secondly, focusing on the two youngest cohorts of women, the authors develop more fully specified models. The data used for the analysis were obtained from three separate surveys, the NLS of Mature Women, Young Women, and NLSY. The findings suggest that family background factors exert a strong influence across all three cohorts of women, with women from more disadvantaged backgrounds more likely to become adolescent mothers. However, it does appear that some factors, such as family structure may have declined in importance over the period while the effect of mother's education increased over time at least fo r whites. While the models explained more variation and the effects are stronger among whites, the models were remarkably similar for blacks and whites of each cohort. Finally, family background factors were found to be more important predictors of childbearing during younger adolescence than during later adolescence.
	Bibliography Citation Upchurch, Dawn M., Nan Marie Astone and James McCarthy. "Influences of Family Background on Adolescent Childbearing: From the 1940s to the 1980s." Presented: Toronto, Canada, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1990.

737.	Upchurch, Dawn M. Lillard, Lee A. Panis, Constantijn W. A.
737.	Updating Women's Life Course: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Life Course; Life Cycle Research; Modeling; Simultaneity; Women Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The purpose of this paper is to further develop theoretical aspects of women's life course by broadening our empirical understanding of key life course concepts and discussing the implications. First, we explore how our contributions expand upon the dynamic nature of the life course perspective. Second, we advance our understanding of the ways in which transitions (short run) are embedded within specific trajectories by modeling several trajectories in a simultaneous fashion. Finally, we present some empirical findings using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and conclude by recommending future directions for life course research.
	Bibliography Citation Upchurch, Dawn M., Lee A. Lillard and Constantijn W. A. Panis. "Updating Women's Life Course: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

738.	Upchurch, Dawn M. Panis, Constantijn W. A.
738.	Nonmarital Childbearing: Influences of Schooling, Marriage, and Prior Fertility Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Education Indicators; Educational Returns; Endogeneity; Fertility; Life Course; Marital Dissolution; Marital Status; Modeling, Probit; Schooling; Simultaneity Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this paper we examine the determinants of nonmarital fertility focusing on the direct effects of other life course events (educational progression, getting married, marital fertility, and marital dissolution). We model the processes jointly to explicitly accounting for their potential endogeneity using simultaneous hazard (and probit) techniques (Lillard 1993), separating the joint determination (selectivity) from direct effects. The study uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY). We test a series of substantive hypotheses regarding the nature of these relationships. Our empirical findings demonstrate that failure to account for the endogeneity of these life course processes leads to biased estimates, and in some cases, misleading substantive conclusions.
	Bibliography Citation Upchurch, Dawn M. and Constantijn W. A. Panis. "Nonmarital Childbearing: Influences of Schooling, Marriage, and Prior Fertility." Presented: Chicago, IL, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1998.

739.	Valentine, Jessa Grodsky, Eric
739.	All or Nothing? Economic Returns to College Credits and Degrees Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Degree; College Enrollment; Earnings; Educational Returns; Gender Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this paper we assess the labor market payoff to postsecondary credits and degrees in an era of increasing postsecondary enrollments, rising attendance costs, and low degree completion rates. While most research and a national political agenda focused on college completion emphasizes the importance of degree attainment, less is known about the benefits of accruing some college credits without degree receipt—despite the growing numbers of college-goers who fall into this category. Results based on the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997 cohort suggest that the labor market returns to an AA and BA have remained strong. Returns to credit accumulation for non-degree-holders, however, accrue to women but not to men.
	Bibliography Citation Valentine, Jessa and Eric Grodsky. "All or Nothing? Economic Returns to College Credits and Degrees." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

740.	VanOrman, Alicia
740.	Changes in the Socioeconomic Gradient in Nonmarital Childbearing across Two U.S. Cohorts Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Fertility; First Birth; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The dramatic growth in the prevalence of nonmarital fertility warrants a re-examination of how women's socioeconomic resources shape nonmarital childbearing. Drawing on a rational-choice model of fertility, prior research focused on births during the 1980s and found a negative relationship between women's socioeconomic resources and nonmarital childbearing. Since then, the nature of marriage and nonmarital childbearing has shifted and economic inequality increased, such that previously identified relationships may have changed. Drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and 1997 cohorts, this study compares two cohorts of women to examine change in how economic factors shape the risk of a nonmarital first birth. Preliminary results suggest that the linkages between wages, employment and education and nonmarital childbearing weakened across cohorts, whereas school enrollment became a more important predictor. These preliminary findings suggest we made need to reconsider how women's own economic resources influence nonmarital fertility.
	Bibliography Citation VanOrman, Alicia. "Changes in the Socioeconomic Gradient in Nonmarital Childbearing across Two U.S. Cohorts." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

741.	VanOrman, Alicia
741.	Childhood Family Structure and the Transition to Adulthood Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childhood; Educational Attainment; Family Structure; Fertility; Modeling, Growth Curve/Latent Trajectory Analysis; Schooling, Post-secondary; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Family structure research typically examines single outcomes (e.g., fertility, educational attainment) during young adulthood, while an emerging literature on the ‘transition to adulthood' views outcomes as a developmental process with significant heterogeneity across individuals. This study links these literatures by investigating family structure as a determinant of the pathway to adulthood with family income as a potential mechanism. The data come from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) and use latent class analysis to model the transition to adulthood. Results suggest family structure differentiates broad types of pathways: nonmarital union formation and childbearing pathways from post-secondary educational attainment or marital family formation pathways. Family income partially mediates the relationship between family structure and the pathway to adulthood for youth originating from marital family structures. Income does not mediate the relationship for youth from nonmarital family structures.
	Bibliography Citation VanOrman, Alicia. "Childhood Family Structure and the Transition to Adulthood." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

742.	VanOrman, Alicia Carlson, Marcia Jeanne
742.	Nonmarital Childbearing and Socioeconomic Trajectories for Men and Women Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Life Course; Modeling, Growth Curve/Latent Trajectory Analysis; Motherhood; Parents, Single; Propensity Scores; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. As the proportion of nonmartial births continues to rise, understanding how nonmarital parenthood fits into the life course is increasingly important. Early research on women links unwed motherhood to a range of adverse economic outcomes, but far less is known about how unmarried fatherhood impacts men’s long-term socioeconomic trajectories. Due to these gaps, it is unclear how unmarried fatherhood alters men’s life course and if unmarried parenthood impacts men’s lives differently than women’s. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort, we use a propensity score matching model, and latent growth curve techniques to show the extent to which potentially adverse outcomes occur in response to nonmarital parenthood, and how the effects vary by gender and race/ethnicity. This study will extend prior research by providing more detailed information about the varying effects of having a child outside of marriage on contemporary men’s and women’s socioeconomic trajectories.
	Bibliography Citation VanOrman, Alicia and Marcia Jeanne Carlson. "Nonmarital Childbearing and Socioeconomic Trajectories for Men and Women." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

743.	Ver Ploeg, Michele L.
743.	Parental Marital History and Measured Cognitive Development Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 1996 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cognitive Development; Income; Parental Influences; Parental Marital Status; Parenthood; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Also: Presented: Nashville, TN, American Council on Consumer Interest Annual Meetings, March 1996
	Bibliography Citation Ver Ploeg, Michele L. "Parental Marital History and Measured Cognitive Development." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 1996.

744.	Vespa, Jonathan Edward
744.	Early Sexual Behavior and First Union Formation in Young Adults Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=7161 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Marriage; Sexual Activity; Sexual Behavior Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using the first six rounds of data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, I analyze the role of sexual behavior on union formation for 6,700 young adults (ages 18 to 22). I investigate whether early sexual activity influences the likelihood of experiencing a co-residential union in early adulthood and whether it is marriage or cohabitation. Results show that earlier ages at first sex and more sexual partners increase the likelihood of experiencing a cohabiting first co-residential union. Sexually active adolescents are less likely to marry or remain single than their counterparts who delayed first sex and had fewer sexual partners. These findings suggest that individuals who enter early cohabiting first unions have different sexual behavior than those who enter early marriages or stay single. Cohabitation has emerged as an alternative union to marriage in which individuals' early sexual behavior influences the kind of first union they first experience.
	Bibliography Citation Vespa, Jonathan Edward. "Early Sexual Behavior and First Union Formation in Young Adults." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

745.	Veum, Jonathan R.
745.	Training, Wages, and the Human Capital Model Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Human Capital Theory; Modeling; Training; Training, Employee; Training, Occupational; Training, On-the-Job; Wage Growth; Wages Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this paper, recent data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth are used to examine the predictions of the human capital model concerning the relationship between training and wages. As implied by the model, training received from the current employer is associated with increased wage growth. However, there is no indication that company training is negatively related to the starting wage. Also, there is evidence that training is general, or is portable across employers. Hence, contrary to the implications of the traditional human capital model, employers appear to pay for general training.
	Bibliography Citation Veum, Jonathan R. "Training, Wages, and the Human Capital Model." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

746.	Villalobos, Amber Brand, Jennie E.
746.	The Differential Impact of College on Becoming a Single Parent Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Degree; Marital Status; Parents, Single Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Previous research has found heterogeneity in the effects of college completion on family formation patterns. However, scholars have not yet examined heterogeneity in the joint effect of college on fertility and marital status via single parenthood--an important predictor of inequality. Using data from National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979 (NLSY79), we ask how the effect of college on single parenthood differs across the college-going population using both theoretically-driven propensity score and covariate-stratified models and data-driven machine-learning models based on causal trees. We find large negative effects of college completion on ever being a single parent and the proportion of time spent as a single parent for students with a low propensity to complete college. We also uncover particular disadvantaged subpopulations for whom college circumvents single parenthood. In general, students on the margins are thus those for whom college significantly circumvents family disadvantage.
	Bibliography Citation Villalobos, Amber and Jennie E. Brand. "The Differential Impact of College on Becoming a Single Parent." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

747.	von Hippel, Paul Lynch, Jamie L.
747.	College and Weight Gain: Is There a Freshman Five? Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; Obesity; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Education is generally associated with superior health, yet it is widely believed that attending college causes excessive weight gain (the “freshman five”). This study tries to ascertain whether college attendance increases or decreases obesity risk. Using data came from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997 cohort (NLSY97), we compared the weight and weight gain of 16-to-23-year-olds who did and did not attend college. We conducted separate analyses for black, white, and Hispanic males and females. Each analysis controlled for confounders including prior weight and measures of family background. We find that college attenders do gain weight during their college years, but college-age non-attenders gain about the same amount. There are some weight differences between college attenders and non-attenders, but these differences are established well before college begins. College attendance appears to have little effect on body weight, at least in the short run.
	Bibliography Citation von Hippel, Paul and Jamie L. Lynch. "College and Weight Gain: Is There a Freshman Five?" Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

748.	Votruba-Drzal, Elizabeth
748.	Income Changes and Cognitive Stimulation in Children's Home Environments during the Preschool and Early Elementary School Years Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cognitive Development; Family Resources; Home Environment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Household Income; Modeling, Fixed Effects Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although prior research has shown that family economic resources are strong predictors of the level of cognitive stimulation provided by children's home environments, methodological concerns suggest that omitted variables may bias these estimates. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N=2174) this study examined the influence of household income on cognitive stimulation in children's home environments during the transition to school. Cross-sectional regressions and longitudinal fixed effects models are estimated to examine the robustness of income's effect on children's home environments. Household income was positively related to the level of cognitive stimulation in children's home environments across both sets of analyses. The home environments of children in low-income households are particularly sensitive to income changes over time. The implications of this study for researchers and policy makers are discussed. This study focuses on five birth cohorts of children captured in the NLSY-CS at age 3-4 (time 1) and then again at age 7-8 (time 2), to maximize the focus on school readiness. (Uses the cognitive subscale of the HOME as an outcome.)
	Bibliography Citation Votruba-Drzal, Elizabeth. "Income Changes and Cognitive Stimulation in Children's Home Environments during the Preschool and Early Elementary School Years." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002.

749.	Waite, Linda J. Leibowitz, Arleen A. Witsberger, Christina
749.	What Parents Pay For: Quality of Child Care and Child Care Costs Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1988 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Child Care; Children; Preschool Children Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although most children whose mothers work receive some non-parental care, this "child care" varies greatly in its features, especially quality. Child development researchers and practitioners have explored in detail the features of child care that provide the best environment for children. However, we know virtually nothing about which parents select "high-quality" care for their children, or which arrangements most often have the features associated with the best outcomes for children. This paper explores these issues, using data from the NLSY. We find that on several dimensions, care in a home--the child's own, a nonrelative's or a relative's--provides features linked to quality care. Our results show, however, that parents do not pay more for any of the features of child care associated in the child development literatures with high quality. Finally, we find that those families with the greatest access to relatives obtain the highest "quality" care. The implications o f these results are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Waite, Linda J., Arleen A. Leibowitz and Christina Witsberger. "What Parents Pay For: Quality of Child Care and Child Care Costs." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1988.

750.	Waldfogel, Jane
750.	Working Mothers Then and Now: A Cross-Cohort Analysis of the Effects of Maternity Leave on Women's Pay Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996. Also: Presented: Ithaca, NY, Conference on "Gender and Family Issues in the Workplace", Cornell University, April 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Background and Culture; Income; Labor Market Demographics; Leave, Family or Maternity/Paternity; Maternal Employment; Motherhood; Mothers; Wages, Women; Wages, Young Women Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper uses two young cohorts from the NLS-YW and NLSY to investigate the importance of family status as a component of the gender gap and the potential impact of job protected maternity leave as a remedy for the pay penalties associated with motherhood. The results suggest that despite the narrowing of the gender gap over the 1980s, family status continues to be quite important in explaining the lower pay of working mothers. The results also suggest that maternity leave policies can have an important effect on women's pay. In both cohorts, employment continuity over the period of childbirth is associated with higher pay, because women who maintain employment continuity over childbirth have higher wages to start but also because returning to the prior employer after childbirth leads to gains in work experience and job tenure. In the NLSY, women who were covered by a formal maternity leave policy and returned to their original employers after their most recent birth have higher current pay, all else equal, than other working mothers. Although the higher pay of these women is explained in part by higher pre-birth wages, there are also positive returns to having maternity leave coverage and returning to a pre-birth employer. Coverage even if not used to maintain employment continuity is associated with higher pay, perhaps reflecting covered women's superior position in the labor market relative to women without coverage.
	Bibliography Citation Waldfogel, Jane. "Working Mothers Then and Now: A Cross-Cohort Analysis of the Effects of Maternity Leave on Women's Pay." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

751.	Waldfogel, Jane Han, Wen-Jui Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne
751.	Early Maternal Employment and Child Outcomes: A Longitudinal Analysis of Children from the NLSY Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2000 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Breastfeeding; Employment History; Ethnic Differences; Fathers, Presence; Hispanics; Maternal Employment; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper investigates the long-term impact of early maternal employment on children's cognitive and behavioral outcomes, using data on 1872 children from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY). We analyze non-Hispanic white, African American and Hispanic children separately and find that the effects of early maternal employment on later cognitive outcomes vary by race/ethnicity. For the non-Hispanic white children, employment in the first year of life has small but persistent adverse effects on cognitive outcomes even after controlling for poverty and other maternal and child characteristics, while employment in the second or third year of life has a small but persistent positive effect: having a mother who worked in the first year of life is associated with a 3-point lower score on the PPVT at ages 3 or 4, and a 2- to 3-point lower score on the PIAT Math and PIAT Reading Recognition at ages 5 or 6, and 7 or 8, while employment in the second or third years is associated with a 2- or 3-point higher score on most of these measures. These negative effects of first-year employment on cognitive outcomes, and positive effects of subsequent employment, are not found for the Africa-American children, while the results for the Hispanic children are mixed. The results for behavior problems also vary by race and ethnicity. For non-Hispanic white children, first-year maternal employment is associated with somewhat higher levels of internalizing problems at age 4 while second or third year employment is associated with lower levels of internalizing and externalizing problems at age 4, but all these effects fade out by age 7 or 8. For African-American children and Hispanic children, we found no significant effects of first, second, or third year employment.
	Bibliography Citation Waldfogel, Jane, Wen-Jui Han and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. "Early Maternal Employment and Child Outcomes: A Longitudinal Analysis of Children from the NLSY." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, March 2000.

752.	Waldron, Ingrid Weiss, Christopher C. Hughes, Mary Elizabeth
752.	Interacting Effects of Multiple Roles on Women's Health Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997 Cohort(s): Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Employment; Health Factors; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Marital Status; Marriage; Maternal Employment; Motherhood; Women's Roles Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study evaluates the effects of employment, marriage, and motherhood on women's general physical health. We analyze prospective panel data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women. The women were aged 24-34 at the beginning of two successive five-year follow-up intervals. Our findings indicate that employment had beneficial effects on health primarily for women who were not married, and marriage had beneficial effects on health-primarily for women who were not employed. It appears that being employed and/or married has beneficial health effects because either role can increase income and social support and reduce psychological distress. The health effects of being a mother appeared to vary, depending on the ages of the children and several characteristics of the mothers. Our findings provide almost no support for the Role Strain Hypothesis and only limited support for the Role Accumulaffon Hypothesis Instead, it appears that multiple roles have vari able effe cts on women's health, depending on the specific role combinations, role characteristics, and the women's characteristics.
	Bibliography Citation Waldron, Ingrid, Christopher C. Weiss and Mary Elizabeth Hughes. "Interacting Effects of Multiple Roles on Women's Health." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Meetings, March 1997.

753.	Walker, James R. Kiernan, John
753.	The Effect of Expected Income on Individual Migration Decisions Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The paper develops a tractable econometric model of optimal migration, focusing on expected income as the main economic influence on migration. The model improves on previous work in two respects: it covers optimal sequences of location decisions (rather than a single once-for-all choice), and it allows for many alternative location choices. The model is estimated using panel data from the NLSY on white males with a high school education. Our main conclusion is that interstate migration decisions are influenced to a substantial extent by income prospects. On the other hand we find no evidence of a response to geographic differences in wage distributions. Instead, the results suggest that the link between income and migration decisions is driven by a tendency to move in search of a better locational match when the income realization in the current location is unfavorable.
	Bibliography Citation Walker, James R. and John Kiernan. "The Effect of Expected Income on Individual Migration Decisions." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

754.	Walsemann, Katrina Michelle Ailshire, Jennifer A.
754.	A New Midlife Crisis?: An Examination of Parents Who Borrow to Pay for Their Children's College Education Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children; College Cost; College Education; Debt/Borrowing; Parental Investments; Student Loans / Student Aid Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Discussions of educational debt often overlook the debts parents take on to pay for their children's education. We identify parental characteristics associated with child-related educational debt among the late baby boom cohort using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. We restrict our sample to parents who had at least one child ≥17 years old and answered questions on educational debt during mid-life (n=6,562). Craggit models estimated 1) having any child-related educational debt and 2) the amount of debt owed among debtors. Black parents and parents with more education, higher income, and higher networth were more likely to report child-related educational debt than White parents and parents with no degree, low-income, or negative networth. Among debtors, high-income parents had more debt than low-income parents. Our findings suggest the student debt crisis is a looming concern for mid-life adults and may have important implications for the aging population.
	Bibliography Citation Walsemann, Katrina Michelle and Jennifer A. Ailshire. "A New Midlife Crisis?: An Examination of Parents Who Borrow to Pay for Their Children's College Education." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

755.	Walsemann, Katrina Michelle Ailshire, Jennifer A. Hartnett, Caroline Sten
755.	Mental Health Among Mothers and Fathers Who Borrow to Pay for Their Child's College Education Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Cost; Debt/Borrowing; Health, Mental/Psychological; Parental Investments; Student Loans / Student Aid Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. More parents are borrowing to help their children pay for college. These loans may be a source of financial stress and worry, which could, in turn, impact parents' mental health. Our study investigates if child-related educational debt is associated with poorer mental health among parents and if fathers are more sensitive to this debt than mothers, given potential gender differences in who oversees the household finances and who is responsible for maintaining relationships with adult children. Data come from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, a nationally representative sample of persons born between 1957 and 1964. We restricted our sample to parents whose biological child(ren) attended college and were interviewed at age 50, when mental health was assessed (n=3,545). Acquiring any child-related educational debt was associated with better mental health among fathers, but as the amount borrowed increased, fathers reported worse mental health. No relationship was found among mothers.
	Bibliography Citation Walsemann, Katrina Michelle, Jennifer A. Ailshire and Caroline Sten Hartnett. "Mental Health Among Mothers and Fathers Who Borrow to Pay for Their Child's College Education." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

756.	Walsemann, Katrina Michelle Bell, Bethany A.
756.	Effects of Timing and Level of Degree Attainment on Depressive Symptoms and Self-Rated Health at Mid-Life Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; Depression (see also CESD); Educational Attainment; Health Factors; Health, Mental/Psychological; High School Diploma; Self-Reporting Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We examined if the attainment of a higher educational degree after age 25 was associated with fewer depressive symptoms and better self-rated health at mid-life. We analyzed data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, restricting our sample to respondents who had not attained at least a bachelor's degree by age 25 (n=7,179). All regression models were stratified by highest degree attained by age 25. Among respondents with no degree, a high school diploma, or a post-high school certificate at age 25, attaining at least a bachelor's degree by mid-life was associated with fewer depressive symptoms and better self-rated health at mid-life compared to respondents who did not attain a higher degree by mid-life. Better self-rated health at mid-life was also reported by those with an associate's degree at age 25 who later attained a bachelor's degree or higher.
	Bibliography Citation Walsemann, Katrina Michelle and Bethany A. Bell. "Effects of Timing and Level of Degree Attainment on Depressive Symptoms and Self-Rated Health at Mid-Life." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

757.	Walsemann, Katrina Michelle Gee, Gilbert C. Gentile, Danielle
757.	Sick of Our Loans: Student Borrowing and the Health of U.S. Young Adults Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; Debt/Borrowing; Financial Assistance; Health, Mental/Psychological; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Student Loans / Student Aid; Wealth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We investigated how college loans are related to health during early adulthood, whether this relationship is stronger among those with less parental wealth or without a college degree, and if this relationship varied by type of college attended (e.g. 2-year versus 4-year). We analyzed data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, a nationally representative sample of young adults, restricting our sample to persons who ever attended college (n=4,643). Multivariate regression tested the association between college loans and self-rated health and psychological functioning in 2010, adjusting for a robust set of socio-demographic indicators. Student loans were associated with poorer self-rated health and psychological functioning. This association varied by level of parental wealth, but not degree attainment or type of college attended. Our study raises provocative questions for further research regarding student loan debt and the possible spillover effects on other life circumstances, such as occupational trajectories and health inequities.
	Bibliography Citation Walsemann, Katrina Michelle, Gilbert C. Gee and Danielle Gentile. "Sick of Our Loans: Student Borrowing and the Health of U.S. Young Adults." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

758.	Walsemann, Katrina Michelle Hummer, Robert A. Hayward, Mark D.
758.	Educational Pathways and the Smoking and Binge Drinking Behavior of U.S. Young Adults Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Alcohol Use; College Education; College Enrollment; Smoking (see Cigarette Use) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using a life course perspective, we investigate whether and why different educational pathways are associated with smoking and binge drinking among US young adults. This is important because educational heterogeneity is infrequently studied in the education-health literature. We use 14 waves (1997-2011) of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (n=7,359). Young adults who delayed college enrollment or who did not attain their bachelor's degree within 4 years were more likely to smoke whereas young adults who delayed college enrollment were less likely to binge drink than young adults who enrolled in college immediately after high school and attained a bachelor's degree within 4 years. Marital and occupational statuses in young adulthood explained a portion of the relationships between educational pathways and health behavior. These findings strongly suggest that heterogeneity in educational pathways is important for understanding young adult health behavior.
	Bibliography Citation Walsemann, Katrina Michelle, Robert A. Hummer and Mark D. Hayward. "Educational Pathways and the Smoking and Binge Drinking Behavior of U.S. Young Adults." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

759.	Wang, Wendy Wilcox, W. Bradford
759.	First Comes Marriage or the Baby Carriage? The Connection Between the Sequencing of Marriage and Parenthood and Millennial Parents' Economic Well-being Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Economic Well-Being; Marriage; Parenthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. A record 55% of Millennial parents ages 28 to 34 have put childbearing before marriage--more than double the share among the Baby Boomers (25%) when they were parents at the same age. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997 (NLSY97), we examine the link between the sequencing of marriage and parenthood and economic well-being among young adults ages 28 to 34. Our findings suggest that young adults who put marriage before any childbearing are much more likely to avoid poverty and find themselves at least in the middle class, compared with their peers who have children before or outside marriage, and even compared with their peers who have not married. Further analysis reveals that the number of children Millennials have and their living arrangements are major factors that help to explain differences in economic outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Wang, Wendy and W. Bradford Wilcox. "First Comes Marriage or the Baby Carriage? The Connection Between the Sequencing of Marriage and Parenthood and Millennial Parents' Economic Well-being." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

760.	Warkentien, Siri
760.	Secondary School Segregation and the Transition to College Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Black Studies; College Education; Common Core of Data (CCD); Educational Outcomes; School Characteristics/Rating/Safety Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Studies of racial school segregation generally find that attending segregated schools negatively affects educational outcomes. However, most studies measure exposure at just one point in time. Less is known about long-term exposure and the consequences of experiencing different timing, sequencing, and duration of exposure. This is problematic given changing policy and demographic contexts that increase the likelihood that students experience varying racial compositions throughout their education. This study uses a unique dataset constructed from three data sources—National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, Common Core of Data, and Private School Survey—to estimate the effect of differences in the timing, sequencing, and duration of exposure to black school segregation on college outcomes. Using marginal structural models, I estimate the causal effect of time-varying exposure on college enrollment and completion. Results will provide evidence-based implications for federal, state, and district policy aimed at equalizing educational opportunity and improving college outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Warkentien, Siri. "Secondary School Segregation and the Transition to College." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

761.	Warner, Cody
761.	Examining the Residential Mobility Patterns of Individuals with a History of Incarceration Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Geocoded Data; Incarceration/Jail; Mobility, Residential Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Thanks to a massive expansion of the penal state, there now exists an identifiable felon class in American society. Increased scholarly attention to this group has documented collateral consequences of incarceration across a number of domains. Researchers have also become interested in examining the types of neighborhoods that ex-inmates reside in, which have important implications for the reentry process. Little is known, however, about the residential mobility patterns of individuals who have experienced correctional contact. This study draws on locational attainment and incarceration effects literatures to examine the impact of incarceration on residential mobility decisions. I find that exiting correctional confinement foster mobility behavior, but this effect is strongest for local moves. These results have important implications for understanding both the consequences of incarceration as well as the more general sorting of households into neighborhoods of varying quality.
	Bibliography Citation Warner, Cody. "Examining the Residential Mobility Patterns of Individuals with a History of Incarceration." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

762.	Warner, David F. Hayward, Mark D.
762.	Racial Disparities in Men's Mortality: The Role of Childhood Social Conditions in a Process of Cumulative Disadvantage Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children, Health Care; Family Environment; Family History; Health Factors; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Life Course; Life Cycle Research; Male Sample; Mortality; Racial Differences; Socioeconomic Factors; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Black American men live fewer years than whites and, moreover, the onset of chronic illness occurs earlier in the life cycle for Blacks. This results in Blacks living more years with chronic health problems and a higher prevalence of functional disability beginning in mid-life. Recent research suggests that these different health experiences result from socioeconomic disparities, rather than behavioral effects or discrimination, per se. Applying a life course perspective, we use the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men (1966-1990) to investigate the childhood origins of these divergent health trajectories. We use discrete-time hazard models to estimate racial differences in men's risk of mortality as a function of childhood living arrangements and family of origin socioeconomic status, net of adult socioeconomic indicators, marriage and health related behaviors. The findings suggest that childhood socioeconomic conditions explain a substantial part of the race gap in adult men's mortality, consistent with a process of cumulative disadvantage.
	Bibliography Citation Warner, David F. and Mark D. Hayward. "Racial Disparities in Men's Mortality: The Role of Childhood Social Conditions in a Process of Cumulative Disadvantage." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, May 2002.

763.	Weden, Margaret M.
763.	Health Behaviors and the Role of Job Conditions: Smoking Cessation and Work Transitions through Young Adulthood and Midlife Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior; Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Life Course; Modeling; Mortality; Working Conditions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Work conditions offer one mechanism linking structural inequality to poor health and mortality. Both psychosocial and cultural factors are important components of the differences in work environments. Health behaviors, such as smoking, can reflect the strain and/or the social norms associated with these work environments. This paper explores the relationship between job conditions and smoking cessation. Trajectories of cessation and workplace transitions are estimated for men and women among the three most prevalent US ethnic groups, using event history models and data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979-1998. This paper extends existing cross-sectional and urban-based literature on the relationship between work and health behaviors, with a unique approach that addresses the health implications of the work environment over the life course.
	Bibliography Citation Weden, Margaret M. "Health Behaviors and the Role of Job Conditions: Smoking Cessation and Work Transitions through Young Adulthood and Midlife." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2004.

764.	Weinshenker, Matthew
764.	Employment and Earnings across the Transition to Fatherhood: A Life Course Perspective Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=70568 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Earnings; Employment; Fatherhood; Fathers; Gender; Life Course; Marriage; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Work Hours/Schedule Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Existing studies support the hypotheses that married fathers are likely to work longer hours for pay than their childless counterparts, and to earn more money. In this study, I draw upon the life course perspective in asking whether married men respond to becoming fathers for the first time in the same way regardless of the age at which fertility takes place. Fitting fixed effects models to data from the NLSY79, I test several competing hypotheses particularly focused upon delayed fathers, or those who become first-time parents in their thirties and after. Preliminary findings suggest that while delayed fathers' employment and earnings are not affected by parenthood, there is a significant (but small) disjunction among older men based on their attitudes toward gender egalitarianism. The results appear to have implications for the study of work-family linkages and for discussions of delayed fathers and the "new fatherhood".
	Bibliography Citation Weinshenker, Matthew. "Employment and Earnings across the Transition to Fatherhood: A Life Course Perspective." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

765.	Weiss, Inbar Dahaghi, Kevin
765.	Education and Student Debt: Differences in Marriage Patterns Among U.S. Young Adults Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Debt/Borrowing; Earnings; Educational Attainment; Marriage; Student Loans / Student Aid Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Growing educational debt has emerged as an important indicator of economic burden and stratification for U.S. young adults, but little attention has been given to the effect of debt on the relationship between marriage and education. Using NLSY97 and multivariate logistic discrete time models, we examine whether debt moderates the positive association between education and marriage. In addition, we use ratios of debt-to-income to better capture loans as an economic burden, rather than refer to debt as a linear predictor. We compare different ratios to measure economic burden: debt-to-parental income, debt-to-current income, and debt-to-future income, based on college major. We find that the likelihood of marriage is higher for individuals with no debt across all levels of education. In addition, we find that while the ratios of debt to parents and current income is insignificant, the effect of debt-to-future earnings is significant and negative.
	Bibliography Citation Weiss, Inbar and Kevin Dahaghi. "Education and Student Debt: Differences in Marriage Patterns Among U.S. Young Adults." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

766.	Weisshaar, Katherine Cabello-Hutt, Tania
766.	Labor Force Participation: The Long-Term Effects of Employment Trajectories on Wages Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Employment, Intermittent/Precarious; Gender Differences; Labor Force Participation; Wage Penalty/Career Penalty; Wages Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We use over 30 years of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) to examine the long-term effects of labor force participation on wages. We document employment trajectories over the life course, and assess to what extent these vary by sex, race, and socioeconomic background, and how they are associated with wages later in life. We find that the trajectory itself -- the timing and extent of intermittent employment -- matters in predicting wages later in life, beyond the duration of intermittency. While women are more likely to follow non-steady employment, women do not incur additional wage penalties compared to men who follow the same non-steady trajectory. Thus, gender inequality in wages derived from intermittency is due to the group composition itself, rather than gendered payoff of a particular pathway. These findings give important insights into the relationship between gender, employment, and wage inequality over the life course.
	Bibliography Citation Weisshaar, Katherine and Tania Cabello-Hutt. "Labor Force Participation: The Long-Term Effects of Employment Trajectories on Wages." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

767.	Wenk, Deeann L. Hardesty, Constance L.
767.	The Effects of Rural to Urban Migration on the Poverty of Youth in the 1980s Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Migration; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Poverty; Rural/Urban Differences; Rural/Urban Migration Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The effects of rural to urban migration on the poverty status of migrants has not been adequately explored. The following paper uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to examine poverty status before and after a rural to urban migration while controlling for individual characteristics. A proportional hazards model of poverty spells that begin in rural areas is estimated to determine whether moving to an urban area reduces the time spent in poverty while controlling for individual educational and family characteristics. The results indicate that moving from a rural to an urban area reduces time spent in poverty for white and black women but the effects are not statistically significant for men. Further, to adequately understand the relationship between moving to an urban area and poverty, the analysis examines the effects of moving on the length of time spent not employed.
	Bibliography Citation Wenk, Deeann L. and Constance L. Hardesty. "The Effects of Rural to Urban Migration on the Poverty of Youth in the 1980s." Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993.

768.	Western, Bruce Bloome, Deirdre
768.	Cohort Change and Racial Differences in Intergenerational Education and Income Mobility Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Education; Income; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Male Sample; Mobility; Mobility, Economic; Parental Influences; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines trends in intergenerational education and income mobility across two recent cohorts in the U.S. Income inequality rose substantially between the early 1980s and the mid 1990s, in part due to rising returns to schooling, and yet few studies have examined changes in the mobility of young adults across these two periods. Perhaps more significantly, African Americans reaching maturity in these two periods faced very different opportunity structures while growing up. This paper studies whether changes in the social and economic organization of American society differentially affected the mobility of black and white men. Using nationally representative data from two cohorts of children and their parents from the National Longitudinal Surveys, this paper finds a significant liberalization of educational mobility for African Americans, while both white and black men's incomes became somewhat more dependent on their parents' incomes.
	Bibliography Citation Western, Bruce and Deirdre Bloome. "Cohort Change and Racial Differences in Intergenerational Education and Income Mobility." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

769.	Wheeler, Marissa C.
769.	Fertility Postponement and Late Transitions to Motherhood Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at Birth; Education; Event History; Family Planning; Fertility; Marriage; Parenthood; Racial Differences; Transition, Adulthood Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Fertility postponement is a widespread trend. Though fertility intentions data suggest that postponed births will be made up at later ages, age-related declines in fecundity raise doubts about transitions to parenthood at later ages. This paper uses event history analysis and data from the NLSY79 (N = 1,483) to examine transitions to parenthood after age 30. I find that marriage is overwhelmingly the most important predictor of a first birth among women who delay childbearing to age 30, followed by age. The size of the marriage-late fertility association, however, varies by race and education, which suggests that differential selection into childlessness at older ages and differential pathways to late fertility by social groups may be operating.
	Bibliography Citation Wheeler, Marissa C. "Fertility Postponement and Late Transitions to Motherhood." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

770.	White, Robert G.
770.	Maternal Job Displacement and Child School Success Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Displaced Workers; Job Turnover; Maternal Employment; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper examines the effects of involuntary job displacement on children's achievement in school. I verify the negative effects of jobloss on children's achievement and show that these effects depend on whether the job displacement was due to a layoff or a firing. I allow for differential jobloss effects by child age to account for children's changing susceptibility to household disruptions during their development. I then consider the duration of jobloss effects over time by explicitly accounting for the duration of time since jobloss. This approach takes explicit account of the age sensitivity of children at different periods of development as well as the time elapsed since experiencing a jobloss. I account for coresiding partners' labor force attachment and further consider the differential effects of jobloss by a measure of family economic insecurity at the time of jobloss.
	Bibliography Citation White, Robert G. "Maternal Job Displacement and Child School Success." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

771.	Wightman, Patrick
771.	Parental Experience of Unemployment and Children's Development Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavior, Antisocial; Children, Behavioral Development; Children, Mental Health; Depression (see also CESD); Parental Influences; Unemployment Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. I use the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) and the NLSY79 Children and Young Adults Survey (CNLSY) together with a difference-in-difference and fixed-effects research design to investigate the impact of parental job loss and unemployment on children's developmental trajectories. I find that children who experience parental unemployment display higher levels of antisocial and anxious/depressed behavior and that that the magnitude and duration of these responses depend on the age of the child at the time of the employment separation. I find little evidence of a long-term impact on children's cognitive development, i.e. reading and math scores. The magnitude of the association between parental earnings and these outcomes is small and earnings measures fail to mediate the observed job-loss and unemployment effects; the home environment and family relationships appear to be the more likely mechanism.
	Bibliography Citation Wightman, Patrick. "Parental Experience of Unemployment and Children's Development." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

772.	Williams, Kristi Addo, Fenaba Frech, Adrianne
772.	Family Structure and Outcomes in Emerging Adulthood: How Children Born to Unwed Mothers Fare Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Bias Decomposition; CESD (Depression Scale); Cohabitation; Coresidence; Educational Outcomes; Family Structure; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Marital Status; Mothers, Adolescent; Parents, Single; Pregnancy, Adolescent Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Research indicates that being raised in a family that does not include both biological parents is associated with a range of poor outcomes in childhood. This literature has focused primarily on children in divorced families. Less is known about the well-being of children born to single mothers, especially when they reach young adulthood. This paper explores how young adults born to single mothers fare in young adulthood, focusing on high school graduating and teen parenthood. Data are from the linked Children and Young Adult sample of the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79). We find significant differences in the likelihood of graduating from high school and experiencing a teen birth for those born to a never-married versus a married mother. Among those born to single mothers, there are few differences between those who remain in stable, single mother families and those whose mothers marry or cohabit.
	Bibliography Citation Williams, Kristi, Fenaba Addo and Adrianne Frech. "Family Structure and Outcomes in Emerging Adulthood: How Children Born to Unwed Mothers Fare." Presented: Washington, DC, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 31-April 2, 2011.

773.	Williams, Kristi Finch, Brian
773.	Adverse Childhood Experiences, Early and Nonmarital Fertility, and Women's Health at Midlife Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Childhood Adversity/Trauma; Fertility; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We develop and test hypotheses about the influence of adverse childhood experiences on two dimensions of family formation--age and marital status at first birth--and consider whether these dimensions of family formation mediate the effect of childhood adversity on women's midlife health. We further posit that exposure and adaptation to childhood adversity, social processes linked to structural disadvantage, may help to explain U.S. race and class disparities in fertility timing and nonmarital childbearing, both of which have been linked to women's health at midlife. Analysis of 35 years of nationally representative panel data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY79) indicate that exposure to adverse childhood experiences is significantly associated with earlier age at first birth and with greater odds of having a nonmarital first birth. Results further show that age and marital status at first birth significantly mediate the effect of adverse childhood experiences on women's health at midlife.
	Bibliography Citation Williams, Kristi and Brian Finch. "Adverse Childhood Experiences, Early and Nonmarital Fertility, and Women's Health at Midlife." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

774.	Williams, Kristi Finch, Brian
774.	Adverse Childhood Experiences, Marital History, and Midlife Health Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childhood Adversity/Trauma; Divorce; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Marriage Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have enduring consequences for health and well-being throughout the life course. We draw on recent evidence that ACEs undermine self-regulation, trust, and the formation of secure intimate ties to posit that ACEs decrease the probability of marriage and increase risk of divorce. Analysis of 35 years of panel data (NLSY79) (n = 5,784) supports the latter hypothesis among white but not black men and women. Importantly, for white women, a substantial portion of the well-established link between divorce and later life health is partly spurious -- explained by the joint effect of ACEs on both marital history and later life health. Controlling for ACEs reduces the estimated effect of divorce on health at age 50 by 25% for white women and 18% for white men. Health differences between the never-married and those in their first marriage at age 50 are not explained by ACEs.
	Bibliography Citation Williams, Kristi and Brian Finch. "Adverse Childhood Experiences, Marital History, and Midlife Health." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

775.	Williams, Kristi Sassler, Sharon Addo, Fenaba Cooksey, Elizabeth C.
775.	Early Childbearing, Union Status, and Women's Health at Midlife Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Childbearing, Adolescent; Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Ethnic Differences; First Birth; Health Factors; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Marital Status; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Despite the prevalence of early and nonmarital childbearing, little is known about their long-term consequences for women’s health. We use data from the NLSY79 and multivariate propensity score matching to examine differences in midlife health between women who had an adolescent or young adult first birth and those whose first birth occurred at later ages. We then estimate the effect of marital status at birth and later marital history on the midlife self-assessed health of women who had an early first birth. Results suggest few negative health consequences of early childbearing except for black women who have their first birth in young adulthood. Among those who have an early first birth, marriage at birth appears beneficial for the midlife health of white women, while marriage after a nonmarital birth may pose health risks for black and Hispanic women.
	Bibliography Citation Williams, Kristi, Sharon Sassler, Fenaba Addo and Elizabeth C. Cooksey. "Early Childbearing, Union Status, and Women's Health at Midlife." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

776.	Williams, Kristi Sassler, Sharon Frech, Adrianne Cooksey, Elizabeth C.
776.	Mother's Union History and the Health of Children Born to Single Mothers Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at Birth; Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Bias Decomposition; CESD (Depression Scale); Cohabitation; Depression (see also CESD); Health Factors; Health, Mental/Psychological; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Marital Status; Marriage; Parental Influences; Parents, Single; Unions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using data from the NLSY79 linked mother-child files, we examine whether children born to single mothers who marry or cohabit have better (or worse) psychological and physical health outcomes in early adulthood than those whose mothers remained unmarried. We limit our analysis to first-born children who were born to and lived with a single mother and distinguish mothers' union histories by marital and cohabitation status, dissolution status of the union, and paternity status of partner. Preliminary results indicate that, on average, children born to single mothers receive few mental or physical health benefits in young adulthood if their mothers subsequently marry or cohabit vs. remain unpartnered.
	Bibliography Citation Williams, Kristi, Sharon Sassler, Adrianne Frech and Elizabeth C. Cooksey. "Mother's Union History and the Health of Children Born to Single Mothers." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

777.	Wilson, Beth A. Toney, Michael B. Berry, Eddy Helen
777.	Onward Migration Differentials among Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Blacks and Whites Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2006. Also: http://paa2006.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=60651 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Ethnic Differences; Human Capital; Migration; Migration Patterns; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Although movement to new and unfamiliar places is prominent in the conceptualization of migration, few studies have detailed differentials specific to onward migration. A larger body of research is focused on return migration, or the movement back to familiar places. This study utilizes the NLSY79 to build on the earlier panel based investigation of repeat migration by DaVanzo and Morrison, whose data did not allow for analysis of possible racial/ethnic differences in forms of repeat migration. Multivariable logistic regression is utilized to examine the characteristics of onward migrants compared across Hispanics, non-Hispanic blacks and non-Hispanic whites, as well as a variety of human capital variables in the NLSY79. The most important finding of this study is significantly lower rates of onward migration for blacks and Hispanics than for whites.
	Bibliography Citation Wilson, Beth A., Michael B. Toney and Eddy Helen Berry. "Onward Migration Differentials among Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Blacks and Whites." Presented: Los Angeles, CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March 2006.

778.	Winship, Christopher
778.	Education's Effect on Mental Ability Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Cognitive Ability; College Education; High School Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. I use novel methods to estimate the effects of additional high school and college education on respondents' mental ability. Using the NLSY, I construct synthetic cohorts of individuals with different years of final schooling. I then use longitudinal methods to estimate what their mental ability as measured by the AFQT would have been if they had remained in school an additional year. Surprising results are obtained. For individuals in 12th grade, an additional year of schooling would increase their AFQT scores by .208 standard deviations, consistent with previous research. However, 60% of this effect is due to being presently in school, whereas on 40% is "permanent." I conclude that mental ability, at least as measured by the AFQT, appears to be like some kinds of music and athletic ability - there are large innate differences, training is critical to performance, and being "in shape" has a substantial effect on performance.
	Bibliography Citation Winship, Christopher. "Education's Effect on Mental Ability." Presented: Atlanta, GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2002.

779.	Winslow, Sarah
779.	She Earns, He Earns: Exploring Race and Class Variation in Wives' Contributions to Couples' Income Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Earnings, Wives; Economic Well-Being; Gender Differences; Income Level; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In recent years, academic and public debate has arisen over which earnings pattern most accurately characterizes the present and future of American couples. This paper contributes to this growing body of literature by examining race and class variation in wives' contributions to couples' income. Using the 2000 wave of the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, I find that black wives are more likely to be co-providers or primary earners than are their white counterparts. While wives in high-earning couples are more likely to be co-providers than are less economically well-off women, women in couples in the lowest income quartile are more likely to be primary earners than are women in the top income quartile. The findings cast doubt on the accuracy of popular accounts characterizing superstar wives as high-powered, high-earning women; they also suggest caution in interpreting relative economic gains among women as signaling absolute progress toward eliminating inequality.
	Bibliography Citation Winslow, Sarah. "She Earns, He Earns: Exploring Race and Class Variation in Wives' Contributions to Couples' Income." Presented: Philadelphia, PA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2005.

780.	Wise, Akilah
780.	Complicating Pregnancy Intention: Early Educational Advantage and Likelihood of Unintended Births Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Fertility; First Birth; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Several studies have highlighted the importance of studying contextual factors that are relevant to pregnancy intention patterns. I hypothesized that the role of educational quality and opportunity may place women on divergent fertility trajectories, resulting in differential likelihood of unintended birth. Employing multinomial logistic regression and a novel index of educational advantage, I investigated whether educational advantages in youth are associated with pregnancy intention patterns of first births among a sample of women from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY 79). The index is composed of several indicators of early educational advantages. Surprisingly, I found that women with lower educational advantages were less likely to have first births classified as mistimed. Statistical significance of educational advantages remained after the inclusion of educational attainment, lending to the contention that early educational experiences influence later fertility trajectories through multiple pathways, not only through their association with educational attainment.
	Bibliography Citation Wise, Akilah. "Complicating Pregnancy Intention: Early Educational Advantage and Likelihood of Unintended Births." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

781.	Witkowski, Kristine M.
781.	A Multivariate Approach to the Gender Wage Gap Presented: Denver, CO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1992. Also: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/101056965 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Children; Gender Differences; Marital Status; Marriage; Wage Differentials; Wage Gap Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study tests various theories about the gender wage gap. Hypotheses cover a broad spectrum of individual and structural constraints on earnings attainment: human capital investment, fertility/marital timing and structure, occupational environment, and the social construction of skill. Utilizing a sample of salaried workers (age 23-29) extracted from the NLSY (N=5171), analyses were conducted on female and male populations and their subgroups of (1) the never- married childless, (2) single parents and (3) married parents. The results show that marriage, age of youngest child, age at first birth, and years married all significantly influence the gender wage gap. The other conceptual groups of variables were found to differentially impact earnings across gender and their marital/fertility disaggregates.
	Bibliography Citation Witkowski, Kristine M. "A Multivariate Approach to the Gender Wage Gap." Presented: Denver, CO, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1992.

782.	Wojtkiewicz, Roger A.
782.	Counteracting Influences Underlying Gender Differences in Educational Attainment Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; Educational Attainment; Marriage; Women's Education Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In recent decades, the educational attainment of women has increased relative to men. At first glance this change could be attributed to diminishing gender differences in the process of college attainment. One factor which previous research has shown negatively affects women more than men is marriage. While it is true that the average age at marriage has increased for both men and women in recent years, women still marry at younger ages than men. Thus, early marriage still may exert a stronger negative influence on women than men. In my paper, I investigate which other variables compensate for the negative effects of early marriage for women. I use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.
	Bibliography Citation Wojtkiewicz, Roger A. "Counteracting Influences Underlying Gender Differences in Educational Attainment." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

783.	Wolfe, Barbara L.
783.	Interrelations of Fertility and Women's Labor Force Participation, with Particular Emphasis on the Effects of Education Presented: Seattle, WA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1975 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior; Children; College Graduates; Duncan Index; Educational Returns; Fertility; Husbands, Influence; I.Q.; Schooling; Wages Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study investigates the effect of more education for women on their fertility behavior. The opportunity cost effect (wage rates) has a negative relationship to family size; however, a positive, though nonlinear, relationship exists between fertility and a combination of taste and efficiency factors; however, the cost factor has a negative relationship to family size.
	Bibliography Citation Wolfe, Barbara L. "Interrelations of Fertility and Women's Labor Force Participation, with Particular Emphasis on the Effects of Education." Presented: Seattle, WA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1975.

784.	Wolfe, Joseph D.
784.	Age, Cohort, and Changing Opportunity Structures: Educational Attainment and the Health Limitations of White Women From 1967 to 2012 Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Women Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. A growing body of research shows that the association between educational attainment and health is at historic highs for white women. Rapid changes in labor force participation, access to high-paying jobs, and gender attitudes have radically altered the meaning of education for women’s lives and their dependence on the education of close kin. Drawing on three nationally representative, longitudinal surveys conducted from 1967 to 2012, this study examines how personal, parental, and spousal education levels contribute to the widening education gap in health limitations for successive cohorts of white women (N = 8,144). Overall, the proportion of women with health limitations did not change appreciably across cohorts, but the analysis uncovered cohort differences in the associations between personal and close kin education and women’s health limitations. Findings identify new sources of health inequalities and demonstrate the utility of opportunity structures in locating and explaining variation in the education-health association.
	Bibliography Citation Wolfe, Joseph D. "Age, Cohort, and Changing Opportunity Structures: Educational Attainment and the Health Limitations of White Women From 1967 to 2012." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

785.	Wolfe, Joseph D. Bauldry, Shawn Hardy, Melissa A. Pavalko, Eliza K.
785.	Multigenerational Attainments and Mortality Among Older Men: An Adjacent Generations Approach Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mortality; Occupational Attainment; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent work in stratification argues the importance of multiple generations in attainment processes. In support of this line of reasoning, studies find evidence that grandparent and parent socioeconomic attainments are associated with both children's life chances and health. This research generally assumes that the rewards of attainment are paid forward across successive generations, but an emerging literature suggests that mortality risk in old age is linked to the attainments of parents and adult children. No single study, however, considers the unique multigenerational structure of health disparities suggested by this literature. To address this gap, we use nearly complete and recently updated information on mortality from the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men (NLS-OM), a nationally representative sample of U.S. men aged 45 to 59 beginning in 1966. Our results support a three-generation model in which men with high-attaining adult children have an especially low risk of mortality in later life.
	Bibliography Citation Wolfe, Joseph D., Shawn Bauldry, Melissa A. Hardy and Eliza K. Pavalko. "Multigenerational Attainments and Mortality Among Older Men: An Adjacent Generations Approach." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

786.	Wolfe, Joseph D. Bauldry, Shawn Pavalko, Eliza K. Hardy, Melissa A.
786.	The Multi-Generational Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Mortality Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015 Cohort(s): Older Men Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Mortality; Occupational Status; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study draws on data from the National Longitudinal Survey (NLS) Older Men Cohort linked with death records to analyze multigenerational effects of SES on mortality. In particular, the study simultaneously examines (1) the long arm perspective, which emphasizes early-life socioeconomic conditions as a cause of mortality by way of biological programming and cumulative disadvantage, (2) the status attainment perspective, which emphasizes one's own attainment as a central determinant of mortality, and (3) the social foreground perspective, which emphasizes the advantages in later life of those who have higher SES adult children. Preliminary results indicate that each generation's attainment is to varying degrees associated with one's mortality. We find that adult children's education and occupational status becomes an important resource net of one's socioeconomic resources. Parents' SES, on the other hand, had the smallest effect on mortality, which was generally reduced to non-significance after controlling for one’s attainment.
	Bibliography Citation Wolfe, Joseph D., Shawn Bauldry, Eliza K. Pavalko and Melissa A. Hardy. "The Multi-Generational Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Mortality." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.

787.	Wolfe, Joseph D. Thomeer, Mieke
787.	Marital and Racial Disparities in Economic Resources and Survival Among Older Women Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): Mature Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Home Ownership; Marital Status; Mortality; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Married White women generally live longer than their divorced counterparts, but studies show little to no difference in married and divorced Black women's mortality risk. Many potential explanations for these patterns are related to the distribution of economic resources related to marital status and race. Nevertheless, research in this area has yet to consider the components of income and wealth. This study examines recently updated mortality information and economic records for women from the NLS-MW (N=4,687), a cohort that came into adulthood during a period of low divorce rates but profound gender- and race-based stratification. Results provide evidence that the low mortality risk of married White women is linked to their ownership of more valuable homes than Black women and divorced and never-married White women. Our findings suggest that interventions aimed at reducing health disparities must first address the social causes of housing and other wealth-based inequali
	Bibliography Citation Wolfe, Joseph D. and Mieke Thomeer. "Marital and Racial Disparities in Economic Resources and Survival Among Older Women." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

788.	Wong, Jen D.
788.	Women's Retirement Expectations: A Longitudinal Study of a Transitional Cohort in the U.S. Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=70851 Cohort(s): Mature Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Income Level; Modeling, Mixed Effects; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Women Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women, we report between- and within-person differences in expected retirement age among women in a transitional cohort. Retirement includes a period of planning and anticipation and can be adjusted in the wake of salient events that occur at the individual, couple, or macro-level. Longitudinal expectations data from a seven-year span are analyzed to assess how expectations changed over time and are structured by demographic and status characteristics. Expectation trajectories were classified jointly on the basis of their specificity and consistency. Linear mixed models were used to examine the effects of demographic and status characteristics on age-specific retirement expectations. Eligibility for defined benefit pensions was associated with more specific retirement expectations. Higher income married women with more work seniority were more likely than their counterparts to expect an earlier retirement age. Implications of demographic and status based characteristics for retirement planning behavior are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Wong, Jen D. "Women's Retirement Expectations: A Longitudinal Study of a Transitional Cohort in the U.S." Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

789.	Woo, Hyeyoung
789.	Increased Resources or Incompatible Roles?: Union Status and College Completion Among Young Adults in the United States Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; College Enrollment; Marital Status; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Despite increases of the overall educational attainment, educational disparity has not been reduced. A number of studies have identified contributing factors for education attainment; however, limited research is available on how union status is associated with college completion. Given dramatic changes in union status among young adults in the last a few decades, this study explores influences of union status on college completion among those who ever enrolled a college. Using data from 15 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 Cohorts with Post-secondary Transcript Study Files (N=6,313), discrete proportional hazard models were estimated. Results indicated that union is not always beneficial to completing a college degree, and this association also varies by types of degree pursued (2-yr vs. 4-yr). The findings of this study inform roles of union in attaining a higher education and offer implications for potential consequences for labor market and health outcomes during adulthood.
	Bibliography Citation Woo, Hyeyoung. "Increased Resources or Incompatible Roles?: Union Status and College Completion Among Young Adults in the United States." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

790.	Woo, Hyeyoung
790.	Motherhood, Timing of a First Birth and Psychological Well-Being Over the Life Course Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2008 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; CESD (Depression Scale); Depression (see also CESD); Family Structure; Life Course; Motherhood; Well-Being Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. To date, several studies attempted to assess the relationship between having a child and psychological well-being; however their findings are inconsistent. The current study explores how being a parent is associated with women’s psychological well-being over time to address these discrepancies. Additionally, I also estimate the long term effect of age at first birth on well-being to investigate how the association between parental status and well-being varies by the timing of transition to parenthood. Utilizing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 79 Cohort (NLSY79), the results indicate that parents are more likely to suffer from depression than those who are childless during young adulthood. However, having a child is no longer to be detrimental in mid life. I also found that the association between parenthood and well-being varies by mother’s age at first birth. I discuss implications of the results and acknowledge research limitations.
	Bibliography Citation Woo, Hyeyoung. "Motherhood, Timing of a First Birth and Psychological Well-Being Over the Life Course." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2008.

791.	Wu, Lawrence L.
791.	Effects of Family Structure and Income on the Risk of a Premarital Birth Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; Family Structure; Fertility; Household Composition; Income Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Wu, Lawrence L. "Effects of Family Structure and Income on the Risk of a Premarital Birth." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

792.	Wu, Lawrence L. Martin, Steven P.
792.	Insights from a Sequential Hazard Model of Entry into Sexual Activity and Premarital First Births Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing, Premarital/Nonmarital; First Birth; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Sexual Activity; Socioeconomic Factors Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper discusses a model that supposes that women become at risk of a premarital first birth only after becoming sexually active. We use the resulting sequential hazard framework to further decompose the probability of a premarital first birth into components reflecting: (1) differences in exposure to risk via earlier or later sexual onset and (2) differences in risks following onset. Our empirical analyses, using data from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, replicate previous findings that socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with earlier sexual onset and higher premarital first birth risks. However, results from our decompositions show that group differences in onset timing have far a smaller influence on premarital first birth probabilities than do group differences in risks following onset. We conclude by speculating on the possible substantive and policy implications of these results, particularly with respect to ongoing debates between proponents and critics of abstinence education.
	Bibliography Citation Wu, Lawrence L. and Steven P. Martin. "Insights from a Sequential Hazard Model of Entry into Sexual Activity and Premarital First Births." Presented: San Francisco CA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 2012.

793.	Wu, Liyun
793.	Does Welfare Policy Influence Children's Behavior? A Regression Discontinuity Analysis of Food Stamps Recipients Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior; Behavioral Problems; Children, Behavioral Development; Children, Well-Being; Food Stamps (see Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program); Methods/Methodology; Racial Differences; Selectivity Bias/Selection Bias; Welfare Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Recent research in welfare policy and child behavior outcomes suggests an association between welfare participation and children's behavior problem. There are two major problems in this literature when examining the causal impact of welfare participation on children's behavior outcome. One is selection bias. By simply controlling for a set of observable variables, prior research has ignored the selectivity of children into welfare program. The other is the straightforward application of cross-sectional multivariate regression. Results from simple cross-sectional multivariate regression are usually biased and inconsistent. A regression discontinuity design is developed to examine this causal impact. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Mother-Child Files of the most recent waves between 1998 and 2006, I find that children of food stamp recipients exhibit higher levels of emotional and behavior problems than their peers. This discrepancy varies across gender and racial/ethnic groups. The findings' potential for policy analysis is also examined.
	Bibliography Citation Wu, Liyun. "Does Welfare Policy Influence Children's Behavior? A Regression Discontinuity Analysis of Food Stamps Recipients." Presented: Dallas, TX, Population Association of America Meetings, April 2010.

794.	Yaish, Meir Shiffer-Sebba, Doron Gabay-Egozi, Limor Park, Hyunjoon
794.	Intergenerational Educational Mobility and Life Course Income Trajectories in the United States Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Income; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Life Course; Mobility; Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Motivated by a theoretical perspective of the cumulative advantage, we examine intergenerational educational mobility and its consequences for life-course income trajectories. Instead of focusing on the overall educational association between two generations, we classify respondents into four distinctive groups depending on whether their parents and they had college education, respectively: upward and downward mobile, immobile in college and in non-college levels. Then, we link intergenerational educational mobility into life-course income trajectories by comparing how four mobility groups differ in their evolution of income from the age 25 to 50. We apply growth models to two longitudinal data (PSID and NLSY79) of black and white men and women. Preliminary results indicate that educational reproduction is the dominant pattern. Moreover, income trajectories of the four mobility groups have evolved differently over time, resulting in widening inequality over the life course among the groups. Intergenerational educational mobility bears important consequences for income trajectories.
	Bibliography Citation Yaish, Meir, Doron Shiffer-Sebba, Limor Gabay-Egozi and Hyunjoon Park. "Intergenerational Educational Mobility and Life Course Income Trajectories in the United States." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

795.	Yang, Tse-Chuan Chen, I-Chien Choi, Seung-won
795.	Linking Perceived Discrimination During Adolescence to Health During Middle Adulthood: The Mechanisms Through Self-Esteem and Risk Behaviors Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Discrimination; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Modeling, Structural Equation; Risk-Taking; Self-Esteem Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Little is known about the long-lasting effect of perceived discrimination on health and even less is about the mechanisms linking perceived discrimination to health over time. We argued that the discriminatory experience during adolescence not only directly affects one's health during middle adulthood, but also indirectly influences health through self-esteem and risk behaviors during early adulthood. Applying structural equation modeling to the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, we obtained three key findings: (1) The discriminatory experience during adolescence imposes an adverse impact on one's health during middle adulthood even after accounting for other potential covariates; (2) The perceived discrimination during adolescence reduces self-esteem during early adulthood, which in turn undermines the health during middle adulthood; and (3) The discriminatory experience promotes risk behaviors in early adulthood and the risk behaviors compromise the health during middle adulthood. Our findings highlight the importance of early intervention in coping with perceived discrimination.
	Bibliography Citation Yang, Tse-Chuan, I-Chien Chen and Seung-won Choi. "Linking Perceived Discrimination During Adolescence to Health During Middle Adulthood: The Mechanisms Through Self-Esteem and Risk Behaviors." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

796.	Yarger, Jennifer Brauner-Otto, Sarah
796.	Time for Work and Kids? Women’s Work Characteristics and Childbearing Expectations Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Expectations/Intentions; Fertility; Job Characteristics; Occupations; Occupations, Female; Self-Employed Workers; Work Hours/Schedule Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Previous research has shown that employment is an important social context affecting fertility, yet relatively little is known about how work characteristics affect fertility expectations. Using over 25 years of data from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we analyzed the associations between work hours and characteristics associated with autonomy at work, including self-employment and managerial/professional occupation, and childbearing expectations among employed women ages 18-45 (N=4,229). Mothers who worked longer hours were less likely to expect more children, while mothers who were self-employed or working in managerial/professional occupations were more likely to expect more children. The work characteristics examined were not significantly associated with non-mothers' childbearing expectations. Among mothers who were self-employed or working in a managerial/professional occupation, work hours were not statistically associated with childbearing expectations, which suggests that autonomy at work may moderate the experience of time-based work-family conflict.
	Bibliography Citation Yarger, Jennifer and Sarah Brauner-Otto. "Time for Work and Kids? Women’s Work Characteristics and Childbearing Expectations." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

797.	Yoo, Sam Hyun
797.	Short-Term Fertility Intentions and Subsequent Outcomes over the Life Course Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Fertility; Life Course Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Fertility intentions have been considered one of the important determinants of fertility behaviors, but their predictive power remains obscure. This study is to explore the predictive strength of fertility intentions and how it changes over the life course. With the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, I analyze repeated fertility intentions that predict an actual childbearing outcome in two years. In this study, the two-year time frame of the intention-behavior sequence is repeated until the end of reproductive span, representing the dynamic decision-making process for childbearing through the life course. The link between fertility intentions and subsequent outcomes in two years significantly differ by direction and clarity of intentions, and these relations also systematically change with age, probably due to social and biological factors. This study provides how the explanatory power of fertility intentions changes over the life course and how that differs by level of education.
	Bibliography Citation Yoo, Sam Hyun. "Short-Term Fertility Intentions and Subsequent Outcomes over the Life Course." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

798.	Yu, Wei-hsin Hara, Yuko
798.	Parenthood and Earnings Changes Within and Across Organizations: How Do Women's and Men's Experiences Differ? Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Discrimination; Gender Differences; Parenthood; Wage Penalty/Career Penalty; Wages, Men; Wages, Women Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Despite much interest in the effect of parenthood on the gender inequality in pay, research rarely compares how having children contributes to wage changes within and across firms for women and men. Using 26 waves of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and fixed-effects models, we examine how women's and men's starting pay across organizations vary according to parenthood status and whether parenthood alters their earnings within each employer spell. We find a motherhood penalty across employing organizations, but not within organizations. Conversely, the transition to fatherhood increases earnings within organizations, but not across organizations. We argue that these results are most consistent with the discrimination perspective, because a negative bias against mothers is likely to be more salient when employers set wages for new recruits than for existing employees, whereas a positive bias favoring fathers should be more prominent when employers judge existing employees than they do new workers.
	Bibliography Citation Yu, Wei-hsin and Yuko Hara. "Parenthood and Earnings Changes Within and Across Organizations: How Do Women's and Men's Experiences Differ?" Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

799.	Yu, Wei-hsin Kuo, Janet Chen-Lan
799.	Occupational Gender Composition and Union Dissolution: Exploring the Relationship and Mechanisms Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Gender; Marital Instability; Occupations, Female; Occupations, Male; Occupations, Non-Traditional; Unions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Yu, Wei-hsin and Janet Chen-Lan Kuo. "Occupational Gender Composition and Union Dissolution: Exploring the Relationship and Mechanisms." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

800.	Yu, Wei-hsin Sun, Shengwei
800.	Unemployment and Childbearing: Whose Unemployment Matters and to Whom Does It Matter? Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Childbearing; Fertility; Geocoded Data; Unemployment; Unemployment Rate, Regional Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Few studies distinguish the effects of individuals' own unemployment and their surroundings' unemployment levels on their fertility, and even fewer examine how different social groups may react to individual- and aggregate-level unemployment differently. Using data from the NLSY97 and an improved measure of local unemployment rates, we investigate how men's and women's paces of childbearing correspond to their own unemployment status and unemployment incidents around them. The analysis indicates that individuals, especially women, with more labor market disadvantages, such as having low education or parents with low education, tend to delay childbirths in response to high local unemployment rates, but they are less likely than the more advantaged to deter childbearing when facing their own unemployment. We argue that these differences reflect the fact that the disadvantaged tend to suffer more from unemployment in times of economic turmoil, while having lower prospects of economic improvement once having become unemployed.
	Bibliography Citation Yu, Wei-hsin and Shengwei Sun. "Unemployment and Childbearing: Whose Unemployment Matters and to Whom Does It Matter?" Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

801.	Zajacova, Anna Montez, Jennifer Karas
801.	The Health Value of the GED: Testing the Role of Noncognitive Skills, Health Behaviors, and Labor-Market Factors Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): GED/General Educational Diploma/General Equivalency Degree/General Educational Development; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; High School Diploma; Labor Market Outcomes; Modeling, Structural Equation; Noncognitive Skills Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Half a million Americans earn the General Educational Development (GED) every year. The GED certification is intended to be equivalent to a high school (HS) diploma; however, econometricians have long known that GED recipients are disadvantaged relative to HS graduates in numerous domains. Recently, several studies have turned attention to another domain, adult health, and uncovered a large health disadvantage of GED recipients. This project aims to explain the health disadvantage, focusing on three groups of factors known to differ between GED recipients and HS diploma holders: non-cognitive skills, health behaviors, and labor-market outcomes. We use the NLSY79 (N=3,869) data on respondents from adolescence to age 40 when they were administered a battery of health questions. Structural equation models will be used to examine the joint direct and indirect effects of the three explanatory factors on multiple health indicators. Preliminary results indicate the hypothesized factors explain the GED-HS health gap.
	Bibliography Citation Zajacova, Anna and Jennifer Karas Montez. "The Health Value of the GED: Testing the Role of Noncognitive Skills, Health Behaviors, and Labor-Market Factors." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

802.	Zajacova, Anna Walsemann, Katrina Michelle
802.	Adolescent Health and Its Effects on Educational Attainment: Evidence from Two Nationally Representative Longitudinal Studies (NLSY79 and NLSY97) Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Modeling, Fixed Effects Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We examine how adolescent health impacts educational attainment among American adults. Linear models and within-sibling fixed-effects models are used to analyze data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979 and 1997 cohorts, which include information on the adolescents’ health, parental background, cognitive and non-cognitive skills, and subsequent educational attainment. The results indicate that adolescent health limitations and self-rated health are only moderately associated with adult educational attainment. The bivariate relationship is in the expected direction and significant but the effects are fully explained by ‘traditional’ predictors of attainment like parental background. The results suggest that at the population level, adolescent health may not have a pronounced independent influence on educational attainment. Research on educational determinants of adult health should primarily incorporate individuals’ childhood socioeconomic status and cognitive and noncognitive characteristics as potential confounders.
	Bibliography Citation Zajacova, Anna and Katrina Michelle Walsemann. "Adolescent Health and Its Effects on Educational Attainment: Evidence from Two Nationally Representative Longitudinal Studies (NLSY79 and NLSY97)." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

803.	Zhang, Ning
803.	Does School Education Reduce Childhood Obesity? Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007. Also: http://paa2007.princeton.edu/abstractViewer.aspx?submissionId=71912 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Gender Differences; Height; Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Physical Activity (see also Exercise); School Entry/Readiness; Self-Reporting; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper exploits state-wide first-grade entry policies to identify the impact of school education on youth obesity. Using the restricted-access data from NLSY79, NLSY97, and Children to NLSY79 Women, I compare children who are born just before the school entrance date and may start school at age of six to those who are born just after. Children born closely prior and post the cutoff dates are nearly identical in terms of all other factors that may affect their body weight and height, suggesting that differences in their probability of being overweight may be causally attributed to differences in the number of school years. I also assess the importance of three channels through which education may affect youth obesity: health knowledge, dietary habits, and physical activities. No theory favors a particular channel, and results demonstrate that their impacts vary with age and grade.
	Bibliography Citation Zhang, Ning. "Does School Education Reduce Childhood Obesity?" Presented: New York, NY, Population Association of America Annual Meetings, March 29-31, 2007.

804.	Zhang, Xiaoyu
804.	Heterogeneous Cognitive Development: Parental Divorce, Gender and Socioeconomic Status Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cognitive Ability; Divorce; Gender Differences; Modeling, Fixed Effects; Parental Marital Status; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Previous literature has identified negative effects of parental divorce on children's cognitive achievements, yet the heterogeneous effects of parental divorce haven't been studied thoroughly given the uneven distributions of parents' propensity to divorce. Moreover, boys and girls from various social backgrounds not only have separated growth trajectories of cognitive abilities but also experience the marital transition of adults in their family in divergent ways. Based on distributed fixed effects models using National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and Mothers between 1979 and 2006, this paper tested whether gender and SES is a factor for how negatively children absorbed the shock of parental separation, but also the early-stage and long-run outcomes of the heterogeneities associated with parental separation. [Also presented at Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019]
	Bibliography Citation Zhang, Xiaoyu. "Heterogeneous Cognitive Development: Parental Divorce, Gender and Socioeconomic Status." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.

805.	Zhang, Yang
805.	Leaving Gets Easier as You Age: Effects of Cohabitation Dissolution on Mental Health by Age and Gender Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Alcohol Use; Cohabitation; Depression (see also CESD); Health, Mental/Psychological; Modeling, Growth Curve/Latent Trajectory Analysis Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines how age and gender moderate effects of cohabitation dissolution on mental health. Drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997 (NLSY97), I applied growth curve models to analyze trajectories of depressive symptoms (N=4496) and binge drinking behaviors (N=4503) among young adults between age 20 to 36. Results indicate that cohabitation dissolution is negatively associated with the mental health of young adults, but this negative relationship weakens as individuals age. Prior experiences of cohabitation dissolution buffer the negative consequences of cohabitation dissolution and partially explain the moderating effects of age on the negative association between cohabitation dissolution and mental health. I find no gender differences in the associations between cohabitation dissolution with either depressive symptoms or binge drinking behaviors. Among the current cohorts of young adults, cohabitation dissolution is negatively related to mental health and this association is similar by gender but disparate over the life course.
	Bibliography Citation Zhang, Yang. "Leaving Gets Easier as You Age: Effects of Cohabitation Dissolution on Mental Health by Age and Gender." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

806.	Zhang, Zhe
806.	Intergenerational Relationship Quality and Mental Health at Midlife: Considering Mother's Relationship With Multiple Children Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Births, Repeat / Spacing; Health, Mental/Psychological; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mothers, Health; Parent-Child Relationship/Closeness; Well-Being Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Parent-child relationship quality is highly influential for parents' wellbeing across the life course. However, few studies investigate how relationships with multiple children matter for midlife parents' mental health. Moreover, collective intergenerational ambivalence, the presence of both positive and negative emotions from multiple children, has received insufficient research attention despite its theorized impacts on maternal well-being. Using NLSY79 data, this study addresses these gaps by analyzing how multiple adolescent and young adult children's reports of relationship quality with their mother, categorized by uniformly close, collective ambivalent, and uniformly unclose, are associated with mother's mental health at age 50. Models from OLS regression with lagged dependent variables find that midlife mothers in a collectively ambivalent relationship were at higher risk of increasing psychological distress than mothers in a uniformly close relationship with children. This research adds nuances to understanding complex intergenerational relationships at mothers' mid-life, with implications for improving the family’s wellbeing.
	Bibliography Citation Zhang, Zhe. "Intergenerational Relationship Quality and Mental Health at Midlife: Considering Mother's Relationship With Multiple Children." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

807.	Zhang, Zhe
807.	Midlife Parenthood and Mental Well-being: How Does Parent-Child Coresidence and Children's Life Course Stage Matter? Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Coresidence; Health, Mental/Psychological; Household Composition; Life Course; Modeling, OLS; Parent-Child Interaction; Parenthood; Residence, Return to Parental Home/Delayed Homeleaving Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Current research examines the effects of parenting minor children and elder parent-adult child relationship on mental health in two separate literature, yet little research focuses on midlife parents -- most of whom care for both minor and adult children in the household. Using NLSY79 data, this study examines the relationship between midlife parenthood to coresidential children and psychological wellbeing among the late baby boomers, whose parenting experiences have become increasingly heterogeneous due to demographic trends including the delayed transition to parenthood and adult children's postponed departure from the parental home. OLS regression analysis shows that compared to parents who had both coresidential minor and adult children, parents coresiding with minor children only and parents coresiding with adult children only had more psychological distress at age 40. The difference in mental health between those living with minor and adult children and those living with adult children was only prominent among mothers.
	Bibliography Citation Zhang, Zhe. "Midlife Parenthood and Mental Well-being: How Does Parent-Child Coresidence and Children's Life Course Stage Matter?" Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

808.	Zhao, Hongxin
808.	Children of Teenage Mothers: What Determines Their Resiliency? Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1996 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at Birth; Behavior; Children, Well-Being; Cognitive Ability; Fathers, Involvement; Life Course; Mothers, Adolescent; Resilience/Developmental Assets; Teenagers Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The purpose of this paper is to examine the conditions under which children of teenage mothers do well in aspects of cognitive, social, emotional, and physical well-being that are central to eventual self-sufficiency. I propose an analytic framework that adopts perspectives of a life course and of the limited differences theory. Specifically I propose that understanding who does and does not possess high well-being requires closer examination of the actual substance of children's lives, that is, their life experiences. Using data from the NLSY-CS, I approach the life histories by formulating a four-category typology of child well-being, based on the age of the mother at the birth of the child and the child's assessment scores at ages 4-6: age-advantaged, age-disadvantaged, resilient, and vulnerable. Boolean String Techniques are employed to identity multiple combinations of family resources, which include economic parental, and community resources, and to delineate diverse pathways to success for children of teenage mothers.
	Bibliography Citation Zhao, Hongxin. "Children of Teenage Mothers: What Determines Their Resiliency?" Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1996.

809.	Zhao, Hongxin McLanahan, Sara S.
809.	Level of Resources Versus Uncertainty of Resources: What Matters Most to Children Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Children, Home Environment; Children, Poverty; Children, Well-Being; Disadvantaged, Economically; Family Resources; Life Course; Life Cycle Research; Poverty Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the process by which economic hardship, parental and community resources affect child well-being. We propose an analytic framework that adopts a life-course perspective and incorporates theoretical insights from sociology and psychology. Employing the data from the 1986-1992 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth-Child Supplement (NLSY-CS), we construct the life histories of three cohorts of children and propose that different combinations of resource levels and changes and how they are experienced in different life domains through time will distinguish the life histories of children of stable low resources from those of unpredictable resources.
	Bibliography Citation Zhao, Hongxin and Sara S. McLanahan. "Level of Resources Versus Uncertainty of Resources: What Matters Most to Children." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

810.	Zhou, Xiang Pan, Guanghui
810.	Higher Education and the Black-White Earnings Gap Presented: Atlanta GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2022 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): College Education; Racial Equality/Inequality; Wage Gap Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We employ a novel causal decomposition, along with a debiased machine learning method for estimation, to isolate the equalizing and disequalizing effects of college on the black-white earnings gap and unveil the sources of these effects. Analyzing data from the NLSY97, we find that among men, the attainment of a BA degree has a strong equalizing effect on earnings in their early thirties, but this equalizing effect is blunted by a disequalizing effect associated with unequal likelihoods of BA completion. To illuminate the policy implications of our findings, we estimate counterfactual black-white earnings gaps under a set of idealized educational interventions. We find that only interventions that both boost rates of college attendance and BA completion and close racial disparities in these transitions can substantially reduce the black-white earnings gap.
	Bibliography Citation Zhou, Xiang and Guanghui Pan. "Higher Education and the Black-White Earnings Gap." Presented: Atlanta GA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2022.

811.	Zilora, Melanie
811.	Intergenerational Altruistic Links: A Model of Family Coresidence Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Influences; Family, Extended; Household Composition; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Sociability/Socialization/Social Interaction; Transfers, Family Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This analysis uses linked mother-child data from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and the 1979 Children/Young Adult Survey to investigate the presence of an intergenerational component to the launching process. We find that children who departed late or returned to the parental home are more likely to have coresident parents later in life, with this effect being most pronounced among upper and middle income youths, as well as youths from black or Hispanic families. We present both linear and non-parametric models of this effect, and contextualize it with a mixed motivation behavioral model of intra-family generosity which exhibits preferences consistent with these new facts.
	Bibliography Citation Zilora, Melanie. "Intergenerational Altruistic Links: A Model of Family Coresidence." Presented: Boston MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2014.

812.	Ziol-Guest, Kathleen M.
812.	A Single Father's Shopping Bag: Purchasing Decisions in Single Father Families Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2005. Also: http://www.human.cornell.edu/pam/seminars/ziolguest.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Census of Population; Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX); Family Structure; Fathers; Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID); Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using data from the 1980-1998 panels from the Consumer Expenditure Survey, this paper examines purchasing decisions in father-headed single-parent families. Very little research exists on this new and growing "other single parent," and much of what does exist is based on small samples of convenience. Extant literature finds that children growing up in single father families, like those in single mother families, are disadvantaged compared to children in married families. This paper examines consumption differences that exist in father-headed families. The analysis presents Engel Curve estimation and expenditure elasticities for different consumption bundles. Comparison multivariate analysis finds that single fathers' consumption choices differ from bundles across married-parent households. Single fathers spend more money on food consumed away from home, less on publications and toys, as well as children's education. Single fathers also spend a larger proportion of total non-medical expenditures on food away from home, as well as alcohol and tobacco products, and a smaller proportion on children's education. Single fathers differ from single mothers by spending more money on food away from home, as well as alcohol and tobacco, and less on children's education. Further they spend a larger proportion of their total expenditure on food consumed away from home, alcohol and tobacco products, and recreation; and they spend a smaller share on children's education. These findings are further examined using Cragg's two-stage model for limited dependent variables.
	Bibliography Citation Ziol-Guest, Kathleen M. "A Single Father's Shopping Bag: Purchasing Decisions in Single Father Families." Presented: Boston, MA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2005.

813.	Zobl, Sara R.
813.	Historical Change in American Women's Life Course Construction Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Life Course; Racial Differences; Transition, Adulthood; Women Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Despite broad consensus that the contemporary American transition to adulthood is diverse and disorderly compared to that of the mid-20th century, life course research has not yet fully explored the nature and degree of change in American women's paths to adulthood. Specifically, while a large body of research addresses women’s life course event completion and timing as related to family formation or career trajectories, temporal changes in sequencing by social class and race/ethnicity remain unexamined. Using nationally representative data from female participants in all available rounds of the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth (NLSY79 & NLSY97), I identify the most common event sequences by which two cohorts of American women completed formal education, entered the labor force, married, and became parents. I draw out patterns of heterogeneity within cohorts and changes over time by comparing event sequencing by racial/ethnic category and by level of educational attainment.
	Bibliography Citation Zobl, Sara R. "Historical Change in American Women's Life Course Construction." Presented: Chicago IL, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2017.

814.	Zuppann, Charles Andrew
814.	Children's Cognitive Abilities and Intrahousehold Parental Investment Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013. Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Cognitive Ability; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Modeling, Fixed Effects; Parental Investments; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Wage Levels Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. I estimate how new information about children's ability leads parents to adjust investment within and across children. Using matched mother and child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 - Children Sample, I show that parents respond to improvements in a child's cognitive abilities by devoting more resources towards that child and improving the child's home environment. In households with multiple children, positive information about one child leads to compensating investments in other children. This concern for equity within the household leads to underinvestment in high ability children relative to a hypothetical set of parents that care only about maximizing the joint output of the children. These results hold both for childhood outcomes such as test scores and adult outcomes such as educational attainment and wages.
	Bibliography Citation Zuppann, Charles Andrew. "Children's Cognitive Abilities and Intrahousehold Parental Investment." Presented: New Orleans LA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2013.

815.	Zuppann, Charles Andrew
815.	Spare the Rod? What Can We Say About the Causal Effect of Spanking? Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Parenting Skills/Styles; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Punishment, Corporal Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Over the past 30 years the probability that a mother spanks her child has substantially declined. Over the same time the negative correlation between spanking and outcomes has significantly worsened. I show that the decline in spanking is driven through changes in social stigmas surrounding corporal punishment. Changes in the correlation between spanking and outcomes over time can therefore be used to estimate a causal treatment effect of spanking for households who changed their behavior due to the increasingly negative stigma. I estimate this treatment effect to be significant and generally positive: spanking improves childhood test scores, educational attainment, and labor market outcomes. However, spanking has a negative impact on childhood behavioral problems and non-cognitive measures.
	Bibliography Citation Zuppann, Charles Andrew. "Spare the Rod? What Can We Say About the Causal Effect of Spanking?." Presented: Washington DC, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, March-April 2016.

816.	Zvavitch, Polina Rendall, Michael S. Hurtado, Constanza Shattuck, Rachel
816.	Contraceptive Consistency and Poverty After Birth Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Contraception; Poverty; Pre/post Natal Behavior; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes; Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Unplanned pregnancies in the U.S. disproportionately occur among poor, less educated, and minority women, but it is unclear whether poverty following a birth is itself an outcome of this pregnancy planning status. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 and National Survey of Family Growth, we constructed three sequences of contraceptive behavior before a birth that signal unplanned versus planned behavior. We regressed poverty immediately after the birth both on this contraceptive-sequence variable and on socioeconomic indicators including race, education and partnership status. Compared to sequences indicating a planned birth, sequences of inconsistent use and non-use of contraception were associated with higher likelihood of poverty following a birth, both before and after controlling for socioeconomic status, and before and after controlling for poverty before the birth. These findings encourage further exploration into relationships between contraceptive access and behavior and subsequent adverse outcomes for the mother and her children.
	Bibliography Citation Zvavitch, Polina, Michael S. Rendall, Constanza Hurtado and Rachel Shattuck. "Contraceptive Consistency and Poverty After Birth." Presented: Austin TX, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2019.

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