Search Results

Author: Hardy, Melissa A.
Resulting in 30 citations.
1. Baird, Chardie L.
Hardy, Melissa A.
The Gendered Structure of Career Goals: Influences of Role Models, Gender Ideology, and Agency
Presented: San Francisco CA, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2004
Cohort(s): NLSY79
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Ethnic Differences; Gender Attitudes/Roles; Maternal Employment; Occupational Aspirations; Racial Differences; Role Models

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

As formal barriers to the realization of expectations are reduced, the factors that affect occupational aspirations of women and race/ethnic minorities deserve closer examination. The importance of same-sex parental role models on adolescents' career goals has been well documented in the literature. However, the mechanisms through which mothers' career orientations translate into daughters' career aspirations are not well understood. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, a nationally representative sample of 12,686 young men and women aged 14 to 22 in 1979, we assess the relationship between occupational aspirations, characteristics of family background, gender ideology, and perceptions of individual agency. Although comparable proportions of young men and young women had mothers who were employed, mother's employment status relates differently to the career expectations of young men and young women. Further analysis suggests that mothers' employment status helps shape daughters' gender ideology: daughters of employed mothers are more likely to form egalitarian attitudes regarding the range of appropriate behaviors in which young women may engage. In addition, this mechanism varies across race/ethnic groups. A stronger sense of agency positively affects occupational aspirations across gender and race/ethnicity.
Bibliography Citation
Baird, Chardie L. and Melissa A. Hardy. "The Gendered Structure of Career Goals: Influences of Role Models, Gender Ideology, and Agency." Presented: San Francisco CA, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2004.
2. Caputo, Jennifer
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Midlife Work and Women's Long-Term Health and Mortality
Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: Population Association of America
Keyword(s): Health, Mental/Psychological; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Labor Force Participation; Mortality

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

While paid work is a well-established predictor of health, several gaps in our knowledge about the relationship between work and later health and mortality remain, including whether these benefits remain stable over long periods and whether they are dependent on job characteristics and experiences. We draw on over three decades of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women to assess how labor force participation over a period of twenty years during midlife affects mental and physical health and mortality over the following fourteen to twenty-three years. We find that persistent work earlier in life continues to predict improved health and longevity many years later as women pass retirement, even after accounting for many health-linked variations in this work experiences and the presence of later life work. These findings add to knowledge about the cumulative nature through which key adult social experiences shape health as individuals enter later life. Note: A similar paper was presented in Philadelphia PA, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2018.
Bibliography Citation
Caputo, Jennifer, Eliza K. Pavalko and Melissa A. Hardy. "Midlife Work and Women's Long-Term Health and Mortality." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.
3. Caputo, Jennifer
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Midlife Work and Women's Long-Term Health and Mortality
Demography 57 (2020): 373-402.
Also: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13524-019-00839-6
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: Population Association of America
Keyword(s): Health, Mental/Psychological; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Labor Force Participation; Mortality

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

Although paid work is a well-established predictor of health, several gaps in our knowledge about the relationship between adult work patterns and later health and mortality remain, including whether these benefits persist over long periods and whether they are dependent on subjective experiences with work. We draw on more than three decades of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women to assess how labor force participation over a period of 20 years during midlife is related to mental and physical health and mortality over the following 16-25 years. We find that consistent work earlier in life continues to predict improved health and longevity over many years as women enter late life, and this relationship does not differ between women with positive and those with negative subjective work experiences. These findings add to knowledge about how key adult social experiences are related to health as individuals enter later life.
Bibliography Citation
Caputo, Jennifer, Eliza K. Pavalko and Melissa A. Hardy. "Midlife Work and Women's Long-Term Health and Mortality." Demography 57 (2020): 373-402.
4. Caputo, Jennifer
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Hardy, Melissa A.
The Long-Term Effects of Caregiving on Women's Health and Mortality
Journal of Marriage and Family 78,5 (October 2016): 1382-1398.
Also: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jomf.12332/abstract
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: Blackwell Publishing, Inc. => Wiley Online
Keyword(s): Caregivers, Adult Children; Depression (see also CESD); Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Life Course; Mortality

Caregivers experience numerous mental and physical health effects from the stress of providing care, but we know little about whether these problems persist in the long term and whether long-term effects differ across caregiving contexts. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women, we examined the relationship between caregiving and long-term patterns of depressive symptoms, functional limitations, and mortality. We also explored the health effects of caregiving in-home versus out-of-home and by caregiver/care-recipient relationship. Analyses show that in-home spousal and parental caregiving predict increased depressive symptoms and functional limitations in the long term but are unassociated with mortality, whereas caregiving outside the home is unassociated with later depression and functional limitations but predicts a lower risk of mortality. This study highlights the usefulness of approaching stressful experiences such as caregiving from the life course perspective, viewing them as processes that unfold over time within specific contexts that may carry delayed or cumulative consequences.
Bibliography Citation
Caputo, Jennifer, Eliza K. Pavalko and Melissa A. Hardy. "The Long-Term Effects of Caregiving on Women's Health and Mortality." Journal of Marriage and Family 78,5 (October 2016): 1382-1398.
5. Hardy, Melissa A.
Effects of Education on Retirement Among White Male Wage-and-Salary Workers
Sociology of Education 57,2 (April 1984): 84-98.
Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2112631
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Behavior; Educational Attainment; Exits; Occupational Status; Retirement/Retirement Planning

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

Education is generally recognized as a major determinant of occupational status, and its effect on career-entry positions as well as on subsequent locations within the occupational structure has been well documented in the status attainment literature. Using the more recent waves of the NLS of Older Men, this study focuses on labor force exits and examines the effect of education on retirement behavior. Results from a series of logistic estimations indicate that the net direct effect of educational attainment on the transition to a "retired" status primarily consists of discrete effects located within non-manual occupational categories. Having acquired a college degree reduces the likelihood of retirement among professional, technical, and kindred workers, and the presence of a high school diploma makes retirement less likely for sales and possibly clerical workers.
Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. "Effects of Education on Retirement Among White Male Wage-and-Salary Workers." Sociology of Education 57,2 (April 1984): 84-98.
6. Hardy, Melissa A.
Job Characteristics and Health: Differential Impact on Benefit Entitlement
Research on Aging 4,4 (December 1982): 457-478.
Also: http://roa.sagepub.com/content/4/4/457.abstract
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Sage Publications
Keyword(s): Assets; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Income; Labor Force Participation; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Self-Employed Workers

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This paper investigates the influence on eligibility criteria, current labor force participation, characteristics of current or last job, health, and age on the utilization of retirement benefits. Respondents were white males drawn from the 1975 wave of the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men. Estimates from multinomial logit models indicate that more highly educated workers and self-employed workers were more likely than other workers to be employed at older ages, one reason being their flexibility in defining retirement options. Self-employed workers and workers with low job tenure and low net assets were likely to combine benefit income and earnings in a given year. Workers with reported health limitations appeared to be predisposed to retire when eligible for benefits, with such workers aged 63 and over more likely to be dependent on Social Security benefits only. [AgeLine]
Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. "Job Characteristics and Health: Differential Impact on Benefit Entitlement." Research on Aging 4,4 (December 1982): 457-478.
7. Hardy, Melissa A.
Occupational Structure and Retirement
In: Current Perspectives on Aging and the Life Cycle: Volume 1, Work, Retirement, and Social Policy. Z. Blau, ed. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1985: pp. 111-146
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: JAI Press, Inc.
Keyword(s): Duncan Index; Educational Attainment; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Retirement/Retirement Planning

The research literature on retirement has generally identified OASI and pension benefits as the major "pull" factors and mandatory retirement and health limitations as the major "push" factors determining retirement behavior. Descriptive data analyses of older workers suggested occupational differences in retirement determinants, and retirement studies that incorporated some form of occupational distinction into the analysis indicated some variation in retirement behavior. The research reported in this chapter was undertaken with the aim of developing systematic evidence relevant to this issue. Information from the NLS of Older Men, from 1973, 1976 and 1978 was analyzed in order to examine determinants of retirement with respect to the question of variations by occupational category. A retirement model that included health limitations, compulsory retirement, second pension coverage, Duncan's index of socioeconomic status, education, job tenure, wage, and age-eligibility variables was estimated by means of a logistic regression procedure within occupational groups. Occupational differences in retirement patterns primarily involved the pension-related variables; however, the similarity in the patterns of effects suggested that, once retirement-age differences were controlled, the variables that influenced retirement behavior were fairly consistent across occupational category.
Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. "Occupational Structure and Retirement" In: Current Perspectives on Aging and the Life Cycle: Volume 1, Work, Retirement, and Social Policy. Z. Blau, ed. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1985: pp. 111-146
8. Hardy, Melissa A.
Racial Differences in Retirement
Presented: San Antonio, TX, American Sociological Association Annual Meetings, 1984
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Duncan Index; Pensions; Racial Differences; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Social Security; Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

Determinants of retirement for older black wage-and-salary workers are examined to assess the extent of racial differences in retirement patterns and status. Using 1976 and 1978 data from the NLS of Older Men, retirement models for blacks and whites are compared. The major differences involve job tenure, joint policies of compulsory retirement and second pension coverage, and Duncan's index of SES-factors that influence the amount of retirement income. In general, private pension coverage is more important to whites; blacks appear to be more heavily influenced by factors that determine Social Security benefits.
Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. "Racial Differences in Retirement." Presented: San Antonio, TX, American Sociological Association Annual Meetings, 1984.
9. Hardy, Melissa A.
Social Policy and Determinants of Retirement: A Longitudinal Analysis of Older White Males, 1969-1975
Social Forces 60,4 (June 1982): 1103-1122.
Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2577880
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: University of North Carolina Press
Keyword(s): Duncan Index; Educational Attainment; Family Influences; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Job Tenure; Marital Status; Pensions; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Work History

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This paper analyzed short-term changes in the retirement behavior of older white males. The l969 to l975 period straddles a major turning point in the Social Security system and allows examination of the hypothesis that older workers quickly respond to policy changes that alter their opportunity structures. Retirement is approached through labor supply, which allows maximum flexibility in analytic conception. Changes in the patterns of results during the l969-l975 period reflect the interaction of the "pull" dynamic of liberalized benefits with other determinants of retirement behavior. The strongest shifts were observed for workers with health limitations and workers facing compulsory retirement but covered by second pensions.
Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. "Social Policy and Determinants of Retirement: A Longitudinal Analysis of Older White Males, 1969-1975." Social Forces 60,4 (June 1982): 1103-1122.
10. Hardy, Melissa A.
Structure of Retirement: A Longitudinal Study of Socioeconomic Factors that Influence the Retirement Decisions of Older Males
Ph.D. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1980
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: UMI - University Microfilms, Bell and Howell Information and Learning
Keyword(s): Early Retirement; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Labor Supply; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Self-Employed Workers; Social Security

This research attempts to integrate relevant theoretical perspectives and methodological techniques from economics into a sociological study of retirement behavior. Four waves of the NLS of Older Men are analyzed by means of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. The author looks at white males aged 45 to 59 in 1966 and places major emphasis on the influence of structural features that serve to organize the work experience of older men. Retirement is approached in two ways. First, it is approached through labor supply--that is, hours worked per year--which allows maximum flexibility in analytic conception of the retirement process. Second, retirement is approached through several categorization schemes of labor force participation which are devised to capture major choices in work behavior. These models are estimated by binary and multinomial logit analyses. The analytic designs make use of both an age cohort structure and a birth cohort structure. The author argues that the retirement process is more complex than the simple choice of labor force participation or withdrawal. Instead, retirement denotes a kind of occupational status that involves different kinds of costs and rewards for different categories of workers. The attempts of older workers to maximize the benefits and minimize the costs of retirement are limited by the opportunity structures they face. Of the factors considered, health limitations and retirement policies have the strongest negative effects on the work activity of older men. The strongest positive effect is associated with self employment. The over-time patterns of results suggest the importance of more general economic conditions and changes in Social Security legislation for work decisions.
Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. Structure of Retirement: A Longitudinal Study of Socioeconomic Factors that Influence the Retirement Decisions of Older Males. Ph.D. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1980.
11. Hardy, Melissa A.
Pavalko, Eliza K.
The Internal Structure of Self-Reported Health Measures Among Older Workers and Retirees
Journal of Health and Social Behavior 27,4 (December 1986): 346-357.
Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2136949
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Health Factors; Mobility; Occupational Status; Retirees; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Self-Reporting

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This study investigates the internal structure of the self-reported health measures available in the 1976 wave of the NLS of Older Men. In assessing the relationship between a measure of work-limitations and a set of health factors based on reports of specific symptoms, activity limitations and problematic work conditions, it was found that physical symptoms and activity limitations were especially strong predictors of reported health conditions that limit the respondent's ability to perform on the job. The mix of specific symptom/condition/activity limitations associated with reported work limitations differs not only by occupational category, but by retirement status as well, in that employed workers in lower blue-collar positions were less likely to report work limitations when they said they experienced several symptoms of weakness/fatigue or mobility restrictions. The authors interpret the results as supportive of the notion that the evaluative context invoked by a health question can influence the consistency of the health reports obtained from respondents.
Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. and Eliza K. Pavalko. "The Internal Structure of Self-Reported Health Measures Among Older Workers and Retirees." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 27,4 (December 1986): 346-357.
12. Hardy, Melissa A.
Reyes, Adriana M.
The Longevity Legacy of World War II: The Intersection of GI Status and Mortality
Gerontologist 56,1 (February 2016): 104-114.
Also: http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/content/56/1/104.abstract
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Gerontological Society of America
Keyword(s): Military Service; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Mortality; Veterans

Purpose of the Study: We examine hypotheses involving the potential health advantages of selection into military service and the potential health disadvantages associated with the experience of military service by comparing later-life mortality rates for veterans and nonveterans as well as among veterans based on their cohort of reentry into civilian life.

Design and Methods: We use data on 3,453 men, including 1,496 veterans from the older men cohort of the National Longitudinal Surveys to estimate Cox proportional hazard mortality models. We distinguish between veterans and nonveterans and further classify veterans by age at exit while incorporating measures associated with military selection, health behaviors, and socioeconomic status.

Results: Veterans who were discharged from the military at older ages have a mortality advantage relative to veterans discharged at younger ages. For the 1914-1921 birth cohorts, the mortality advantage for veterans who exited around age 30 is apparent for deaths before age 65, but rates equalize across all groups when deaths at older ages are included. These findings are robust to the inclusion of background characteristics, education, occupation, body mass index, smoking, marital status, and proxies for service deferments.

Implications: Rather than focusing on a general health effect of military service, per se, future research should distinguish among individual traits; the nature, timing, and duration of exposures relative to life course stage; and the sociohistorical context of military service to expand our understanding of the differential health consequences of military service.

Bibliography Citation
Hardy, Melissa A. and Adriana M. Reyes. "The Longevity Legacy of World War II: The Intersection of GI Status and Mortality." Gerontologist 56,1 (February 2016): 104-114.
13. Hayward, Mark D.
Grady, William R.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Occupational Consequences for Men's Early Retirement
report, Seattle WA: Battelle Human Affairs Research Center, 1985
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Battelle Human Affairs Research Center
Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Early Retirement; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Job Tenure; Occupations; Retirement/Retirement Planning

This study examines the consequences of the occupational work context for men's early retirement. The project consists of three major stages. The first stage focuses on the relationship between the nature of work in the occupation and the occupationally-based opportunity structure for older men's labor force participation. The intent is to identify those features of the occupational context that help define older men's opportunity structure. In the second stage of the project, the analysis focuses on the direct contributions of the occupational context to early retirement relative to traditional retirement determinants. The results indicate that while occupational characteristics are not the dominant force directly influencing early retirement, there is some age-grading of occupational effects such that both task and non-task occupational characteristics gain or lose their direct salience for retirement depending on the age of incumbents. Finally, in the third stage of the study, the analyses address whether the impact of traditional retirement determinants is shaped by the nature of the work. The analyses indicate that the occupation serves to structure the influence of several key determinants of early retirement--particularly the effects of health status and job tenure. In general, the results of this study substantiate the importance of considering the occupational context in analyses of men's early retirement.
Bibliography Citation
Hayward, Mark D., William R. Grady and Melissa A. Hardy. "Occupational Consequences for Men's Early Retirement." report, Seattle WA: Battelle Human Affairs Research Center, 1985.
14. Hayward, Mark D.
Grady, William R.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Sommers, David Gerard
Occupational Influences on Retirement, Disability and Death
Demography 26,3 (August 1989): 393-409.
Also: http://www.springerlink.com/content/92n1655360080128/
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Population Association of America
Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Disabled Workers; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Labor Force Participation; Mortality; Occupations; Retirement/Retirement Planning

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This research examines the alternative mechanisms by which occupations influence the nature and timing of older men's labor force withdrawal. In particular, the authors assess the extent to which occupational factors operate directly and indirectly on exiting events and whether occupations augment or constrain traditional determinants of labor force participation. Based on a discrete-time hazards modeling approach, the results substantiate that the occupational task activities, substantive complexity and physical demands, are key elements of the work environment that are evaluated against the set of non-work alternatives. In the case of retirement, these aspects of occupational attractiveness function as a dominant and direct force in retirement decision-making. With regard to disability, the occupational attribute of substantive complexity operates as an indirect advantage (through higher wage rates) by reducing the risk of a disability exit. Indicators of career continuity also determine the rate of retirement among older workers. Finally, results suggest that financial characteristics and health problems are central to the distribution of older workers across the alternative destination statuses of retirement, disability and death.
Bibliography Citation
Hayward, Mark D., William R. Grady, Melissa A. Hardy and David Gerard Sommers. "Occupational Influences on Retirement, Disability and Death." Demography 26,3 (August 1989): 393-409.
15. Hayward, Mark D.
Grady, William R.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Sommers, David Gerard
Retirement, Disability and Death Among Older Men in the U.S.: The Influence of Occupation
Presented: Chicago, IL, American Statistical Association Annual Meetings, 1987
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: American Statistical Association
Keyword(s): Disabled Workers; Labor Force Participation; Mortality; Occupations; Retirement/Retirement Planning

This research examines the alternative mechanisms by which occupations influence the nature and timing of older men's labor force withdrawal. In particular, this research assesses the extent to which occupational factors operate directly and indirectly on exiting events and whether occupations augment or constrain traditional determinants of labor force participation. Based on a discrete-time hazards modeling approach, the results substantiate that the occupational task activities, substantive complexity and physical demands, are key elements of the work environment that are evaluated against the set of non-work alternatives. In the case of retirement, these aspects of occupational attractiveness function as a dominant and direct force in the retirement decision- making calculus. With regard to disability, these factors operate directly by defining vocational opportunities. Other occupational attributes such as mandatory retirement regulations and measures of career continuity also are key and direct determinants of the retirement decision.
Bibliography Citation
Hayward, Mark D., William R. Grady, Melissa A. Hardy and David Gerard Sommers. "Retirement, Disability and Death Among Older Men in the U.S.: The Influence of Occupation." Presented: Chicago, IL, American Statistical Association Annual Meetings, 1987.
16. Hayward, Mark D.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Early Retirement Processes Among Older Men: Occupational Differences
Research on Aging 7,4 (December 1985): 491-515.
Also: http://roa.sagepub.com/content/7/4/491.abstract
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Sage Publications
Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Job Requirements; Occupations; Retirement/Retirement Planning

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This study examines the influence of the occupational context on early retirement, focusing on the ways in which the nature of work constrains early retirement processes. Using data from the NLS Older Men and the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, a model of early retirement is estimated within occupational job families where a job family is a cluster of occupations grouped according to major task dimensions. The findings indicate that the effects of certain traditional determinants of early retirement vary substantially across occupations, demonstrating that the labor force opportunities of older men are defined within an occupational context, and that the impact of individual and job characteristics relevant to the early retirement decision are shaped by the nature of work.
Bibliography Citation
Hayward, Mark D. and Melissa A. Hardy. "Early Retirement Processes Among Older Men: Occupational Differences." Research on Aging 7,4 (December 1985): 491-515.
17. Hayward, Mark D.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Grady, William R.
Career Relinquishment Patterns Among Older Men in the United States
Presented: New York, NY, American Sociological Association Annual Meetings, 1986
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Career Patterns; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Labor Force Participation; Occupations; Retirement/Retirement Planning

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This study investigates the influence of the occupational context and other sociodemographic characteristics on men's rates of retirement, disability, and death in the U.S. The intent is to identify career relinquishment processes for major subgroups in the labor market to more firmly ground current theory building attempts. Using a hazards model approach, the authors estimate a dynamic model of career relinquishment and identify the effects of occupations and sociodemographic factors on the three events marking the termination of the labor force career. Estimates from the hazards models were used to construct multi-decrement working life tables. The results allow quantification of, for a cohort of older men, the implications of the occupational context and sociodemographic factors in terms of the relative frequency of retirement, disability, and death, the pace of labor force withdrawal, and the number of years workers of a given age can anticipate being in the labor force. To provide substantive direction for future research, possible mechanisms which may explain the observed subgroup differences in withdrawal patterns are discussed.
Bibliography Citation
Hayward, Mark D., Melissa A. Hardy and William R. Grady. "Career Relinquishment Patterns Among Older Men in the United States." Presented: New York, NY, American Sociological Association Annual Meetings, 1986.
18. Hayward, Mark D.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Grady, William R.
Labor Force Withdrawal Patterns Among Older Men in the United States
Social Science Quarterly 70,2 (June 1989): 425-448
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: University of Texas Press
Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Disabled Workers; Mortality; Occupations; Retirement/Retirement Planning

Permission to reprint the abstract has been denied by the publisher.

Bibliography Citation
Hayward, Mark D., Melissa A. Hardy and William R. Grady. "Labor Force Withdrawal Patterns Among Older Men in the United States." Social Science Quarterly 70,2 (June 1989): 425-448.
19. Hayward, Mark D.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Liu, Mei-Chun
Work After Retirement: The Experiences of Older Men in the United States
Social Science Research 23,1 (March 1994): 82-107.
Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X84710040
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Academic Press, Inc.
Keyword(s): Labor Force Participation; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Retirees; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Work Reentry

The permeability of the work/retirement boundary is examined by investigating the labor force reentry process among a group of male retirees. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men, hazards models are estimated to identify the determinants of postretirement work. Reentry is distinguished according to part-time and full-time work to capture potentially important sources of diversity. The results show that reentry occurs quickly--typically within the first year or two after a labor force exit. Despite career interruption, several work career factors significantly alter the overall chances of reentry. Comparing reentry determinants of full-time versus part-time work suggests that postretirement, part-time work is a distinct state referencing partial retirement; it is not a middle ground on a continuum between career work and complete retirement. In addition, characteristics positively linked to an initial early retirement negatively affect reentry into full-time (although not part-time) work. The determinants governing moves into and out of the labor force, and into and out of partial retirement are quite different. Overall, the results demonstrate that the transition from work to retirement is neither uniform nor irreversible.
Bibliography Citation
Hayward, Mark D., Melissa A. Hardy and Mei-Chun Liu. "Work After Retirement: The Experiences of Older Men in the United States." Social Science Research 23,1 (March 1994): 82-107.
20. Pampel, Fred C.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Changes in Income Inequality During Old Age
Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 13 (1994): 239-263
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: JAI Press, Inc.
Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Educational Attainment; Family Income; Income Dynamics/Shocks; Income Level; Mothers, Education; Occupational Status; Racial Differences; Transfers, Financial; Transfers, Public; Underreporting; Wage Dynamics

Do withdrawal from the labor force and increased reliance on public transfers during old age change the level of income inequality generated by market forces during the pre-retirement years? Despite competing claims that inequality during old age is (I) maintained by advantages accumulated during middle age, (2) reduced by public transfers, or (3) increased by differential access to social protection, few studies compare inequality within cohorts before and after the transition to old age and retirement. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men from 1966 to 1981, this paper examines changes in the distribution of market, transfer, and total family income (including adjustments for family size, underreporting, and assets). It also compares the contribution of status background variables--occupational status, education, and race--to income inequality across years, ages, and work statuses. The results show increases in inequality as the men grow older and withdraw from the labor force, and indicate the contribution of status background to inequality remains strong. Although public retirement transfers are progressively distributed, they fail to counter other pressures toward greater social inequality.
Bibliography Citation
Pampel, Fred C. and Melissa A. Hardy. "Changes in Income Inequality During Old Age." Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 13 (1994): 239-263.
21. Pampel, Fred C.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Status Maintenance and Change During Old Age
Social Forces 73,1 (September 1994): 289-314.
Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2579927
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: University of North Carolina Press
Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Educational Attainment; Educational Status; Family Income; Income; Occupational Status; Racial Differences; Racial Studies; Residence; Retirement/Retirement Planning

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

Uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men to compare the impact of status characteristics important during work careers--race, residence, education, occupation--on men's economic outcomes before and after the normal age of eligibility for retirement benefits. Results show only modest change in effects of background variables over time, across ages, or with hours worked, and suggest more continuity than change in the determinants of income.
Bibliography Citation
Pampel, Fred C. and Melissa A. Hardy. "Status Maintenance and Change During Old Age." Social Forces 73,1 (September 1994): 289-314.
22. Pavalko, Eliza K.
Caputo, Jennifer
Hardy, Melissa A.
Long-term Effects of Employment and Employment Discrimination on Women's Health and Mortality
Presented: Dublin, Ireland, Society for Longitudinal and Life Course Studies (SLLS) International Conference, October 2015
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: Society for Longitudinal and Life Course Studies
Keyword(s): Depression (see also CESD); Discrimination, Age; Discrimination, Employer; Discrimination, Job; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Labor Force Participation; Mortality; Retirement/Retirement Planning

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

The short-term health effects of discrimination have been well documented, but we know much less about whether these health effects persist even after the risk of further discriminatory experiences is eliminated. In this paper we use long-term longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women and newly matched mortality records to examine whether the health effects of work discrimination persist into later life, when most women are no longer working, and whether they extend to mortality. We find that 8 percent of women report experiencing work discrimination over a 5 year period when they are between the ages of 47-66 and that the most commonly reported form of discrimination is age discrimination. After controlling for prior health, we find that women who reported experiencing workplace discrimination over this time also reported more depressive symptoms and more functional limitations at the end of the period than did women who were employed during the same period but did not report experiencing work discrimination. Women who were not employed during that same period also had more emotional and physical health problems than those who worked but did not experience discrimination. These health differences continue as women age and move into retirement even though the risk of work discrimination is eliminated, but they do not extend to all-cause mortality. Our findings suggest that the health effects of work discrimination are both broad and persistent as they impact both physical and emotional health and remain significant as women move into their retirement years. They also point to the long-term health benefits women gain from non-discriminatory employment experiences.
Bibliography Citation
Pavalko, Eliza K., Jennifer Caputo and Melissa A. Hardy. "Long-term Effects of Employment and Employment Discrimination on Women's Health and Mortality." Presented: Dublin, Ireland, Society for Longitudinal and Life Course Studies (SLLS) International Conference, October 2015.
23. Reyes, Adriana M.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Race Differences in Linking Family Formation Transitions to Women's Mortality
Journal of Health and Social Behavior 59,2 (June 2018): 231-247.
Also: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0022146518757014
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Age at First Marriage; Family Formation; First Birth; Modeling, Hazard/Event History/Survival/Duration; Mortality; Racial Differences

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

We examine how the timing and sequencing of first marriage and childbirth are related to mortality for a cohort of 4,988 white and black women born between 1922 and 1937 from the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women. We use Cox proportional hazard models to estimate race differences in the association between family formation transitions and mortality. Although we find no relationships between marital histories and longevity, we do find that having children, the timing of first birth, and the sequencing of childbirth and marriage are associated with mortality. White women who had children lived longer than those who had none, but the opposite was found for black women. The effects of birth timing also differed by race; delaying first birth to older ages was protective for white women but not black women. These results underscore the importance of social context in the study of life course transitions.
Bibliography Citation
Reyes, Adriana M., Melissa A. Hardy and Eliza K. Pavalko. "Race Differences in Linking Family Formation Transitions to Women's Mortality." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 59,2 (June 2018): 231-247.
24. Willson, Andrea E.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Racial Disparities in Income Security for a Cohort of Aging American Women
Social Forces 80,4 (June 2002): 1283-1306.
Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3086508
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: University of North Carolina Press
Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Employment; Income; Marriage; Racial Differences; Women

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

In this analysis we examine how women's family and employment choices are linked to differences in financial security as they age. Previous research has tested theories of growing inequality, decreasing inequality, or maintained inequality as cohorts transition into old age. We assess these hypotheses for older women and emphasize the heterogeneity in women's experiences, particularly differences in income security among women by race. Our findings indicate that, although marriage offers women considerable financial protection, their own employment was also a key to their security and reduced the rate at which income security decayed as they entered old age. This increased the variation in outcomes relative to initial positions. Whereas marriage provided more security for white women, employment gave a greater boost to black women.
Bibliography Citation
Willson, Andrea E. and Melissa A. Hardy. "Racial Disparities in Income Security for a Cohort of Aging American Women." Social Forces 80,4 (June 2002): 1283-1306.
25. Wolfe, Joseph D.
Bauldry, Shawn
Hardy, Melissa A.
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Multigenerational Attainments and Mortality Among Older Men: An Adjacent Generations Approach
Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Population Association of America
Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mortality; Occupational Attainment; Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

Recent work in stratification argues the importance of multiple generations in attainment processes. In support of this line of reasoning, studies find evidence that grandparent and parent socioeconomic attainments are associated with both children's life chances and health. This research generally assumes that the rewards of attainment are paid forward across successive generations, but an emerging literature suggests that mortality risk in old age is linked to the attainments of parents and adult children. No single study, however, considers the unique multigenerational structure of health disparities suggested by this literature. To address this gap, we use nearly complete and recently updated information on mortality from the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men (NLS-OM), a nationally representative sample of U.S. men aged 45 to 59 beginning in 1966. Our results support a three-generation model in which men with high-attaining adult children have an especially low risk of mortality in later life.
Bibliography Citation
Wolfe, Joseph D., Shawn Bauldry, Melissa A. Hardy and Eliza K. Pavalko. "Multigenerational Attainments and Mortality Among Older Men: An Adjacent Generations Approach." Presented: Denver CO, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April 2018.
26. Wolfe, Joseph D.
Bauldry, Shawn
Hardy, Melissa A.
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Multigenerational Attainments, Race, and Mortality Risk among Silent Generation Women
Journal of Health and Social Behavior 59,3 (September 2018): 335-351.
Also: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022146518784596
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mortality; Occupations; Racial Differences; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Wealth

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This study extends health disparities research by examining racial differences in the relationships between multigenerational attainments and mortality risk among "Silent Generation" women. An emerging literature suggests that the socioeconomic attainments of adjacent generations, one's parents and adult children, provide an array of life-extending resources in old age. Prior research, however, has demonstrated neither how multigenerational resources are implicated in women's longevity nor how racial disparities faced by Silent Generation women may differentially structure the relationships between socioeconomic attainments and mortality. With data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women, the analysis provided evidence of a three-generation model in which parent occupation, family wealth, and adult child education were independently associated with women's mortality. Although we found evidence of racial differences in the associations between parental, personal, and spousal education and mortality risk, the education of adult children was a robust predictor of survival for black and white women.
Bibliography Citation
Wolfe, Joseph D., Shawn Bauldry, Melissa A. Hardy and Eliza K. Pavalko. "Multigenerational Attainments, Race, and Mortality Risk among Silent Generation Women." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 59,3 (September 2018): 335-351.
27. Wolfe, Joseph D.
Bauldry, Shawn
Hardy, Melissa A.
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Multigenerational Socioeconomic Attainments and Mortality Among Older Men: An Adjacent Generations Approach
Demographic Research 39 (2018): 719-752.
Also: https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol39/26/default.htm
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research
Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Mortality; Occupations; Socioeconomic Background

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

Objective: We develop a new approach to understanding family attainments and mortality in later life and test the multigenerational structure of health disparities suggested by the long arm, personal attainment, and social foreground perspectives.

Methods: The analysis uses nearly complete mortality data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Older Men, a representative sample of US men aged 45 to 59 in 1966.

Results: We find that older men with parents who farmed had a median age of death that was 1.3 years higher than those who had parents with manual occupations, and men with adult children who had 16 or more years of schooling had a median age of death almost 2 years higher than those with children with 12 or fewer years of schooling.

Bibliography Citation
Wolfe, Joseph D., Shawn Bauldry, Melissa A. Hardy and Eliza K. Pavalko. "Multigenerational Socioeconomic Attainments and Mortality Among Older Men: An Adjacent Generations Approach." Demographic Research 39 (2018): 719-752.
28. Wolfe, Joseph D.
Bauldry, Shawn
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Multigenerational Educational Attainment and Women's Mortality
Presented: Seattle WA, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2016
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: American Sociological Association
Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Mortality

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This study develops and tests a model of multigenerational educational attainment and women's mortality. While developed separately, the long arm, personal attainment, and social foreground perspectives suggest a single, overarching process in which parent, personal, and adult child educational attainment provide unique health-related resources at various points in the life course. No single study, however, tests whether the attainment of multiple generations has a cumulative effect on women's mortality. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women (NLS-MW), a nationally representative sample with recently updated information on mortality, this paper examines the relationships between mortality and the educational attainment of three generations whose lives, when taken together, span the entirety of the twentieth century. Results indicate that adult child educational attainment is an important predictor of older women's mortality risk, whereas parent, personal, and husband attainment appear to have no association with mortality after adjusting for adult child attainment and sociodemographic controls. An integration of these findings with prior research on mortality suggests a model of multigenerational attainment and mortality in which, as women grow older, the relative importance of each generation's attainment for one's survival shifts from past to future generations.
Bibliography Citation
Wolfe, Joseph D., Shawn Bauldry, Eliza K. Pavalko and Melissa A. Hardy. "Multigenerational Educational Attainment and Women's Mortality." Presented: Seattle WA, American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, August 2016.
29. Wolfe, Joseph D.
Bauldry, Shawn
Pavalko, Eliza K.
Hardy, Melissa A.
The Multi-Generational Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Mortality
Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015
Cohort(s): Older Men
Publisher: Population Association of America
Keyword(s): Educational Attainment; Mortality; Occupational Status; Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.

This study draws on data from the National Longitudinal Survey (NLS) Older Men Cohort linked with death records to analyze multigenerational effects of SES on mortality. In particular, the study simultaneously examines (1) the long arm perspective, which emphasizes early-life socioeconomic conditions as a cause of mortality by way of biological programming and cumulative disadvantage, (2) the status attainment perspective, which emphasizes one's own attainment as a central determinant of mortality, and (3) the social foreground perspective, which emphasizes the advantages in later life of those who have higher SES adult children. Preliminary results indicate that each generation's attainment is to varying degrees associated with one's mortality. We find that adult children's education and occupational status becomes an important resource net of one's socioeconomic resources. Parents' SES, on the other hand, had the smallest effect on mortality, which was generally reduced to non-significance after controlling for one’s attainment.
Bibliography Citation
Wolfe, Joseph D., Shawn Bauldry, Eliza K. Pavalko and Melissa A. Hardy. "The Multi-Generational Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Mortality." Presented: San Diego CA, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, April-May 2015.
30. Wong, Jen D.
Hardy, Melissa A.
Women's Retirement Expectations: How Stable Are They?
Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 64B,1 (January 2009): 77-86.
Also: http://psychsocgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/content/64B/1.toc
Cohort(s): Mature Women
Publisher: Gerontological Society of America
Keyword(s): Age and Ageing; Demography; Gerontology; Heterogeneity; Income Level; Modeling, Mixed Effects; Retirement/Retirement Planning; Women; Women's Studies

OBJECTIVE: Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women, we examine between- and within-person differences in expected retirement age as a key element of the retirement planning process. The expectation typologies of 1,626 women born between 1923 and 1937 were classified jointly on the basis of specificity and consistency. METHODS: Latent class analysis was used to determine retirement expectation patterns over a 7-year span. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were employed to estimate the effects of demographic and status characteristics on the likelihood of reporting 4 distinct longitudinal patterns of retirement expectations. RESULTS: Substantial heterogeneity in reports of expected retirement age between and within individuals over the 7-year span was found. Demographic and status characteristics, specifically age, race, marital status, job tenure, and recent job change, sorted respondents into different retirement expectation patterns. CONCLUSIONS: The frequent within-person fluctuations and substantial between-person heterogeneity in retirement expectations indicate uncertainty and variability in both expectations and process of expectation formation. Variability in respondents' reports suggests that studying retirement expectations at multiple time points better captures the dynamics of preretirement planning.
Bibliography Citation
Wong, Jen D. and Melissa A. Hardy. "Women's Retirement Expectations: How Stable Are They?" Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 64B,1 (January 2009): 77-86.