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Author: Miller, Jane E.

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1.	Korenman, Sanders D. Miller, Jane E.
1.	Effects of Long-Term Poverty on Physical Health of Children in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth In: Consequences of Growing Up Poor. G.J. Duncan and J. Brooks-Gunn, eds. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997: pp. 70-99 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Russell Sage Foundation Keyword(s): Birthweight; Body Mass Index (BMI); Child Health; Family Structure; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Income; Motor and Social Development (MSD); Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Obesity; Poverty; Siblings; Weight In this chapter, we use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), 1979-91, that provide background information on socioeconomic characteristics and annual data on income and family structure for a nationally representative sample of women selected in 1979. In combination with assessments of the health and development of the children born to this cohort of women, these data provide and excellent opportunity to investigate the effect of poverty dynamics on children's physical health and development in the United States (for example, Chase-Landsdale et al. 1991). We investigate the relations between income and timing or duration of poverty on the one hand and indicators of nutritional status and motor and social development (MSD) on the other. (The MSD index provides a measure of how a child's physical, language, and motor skills compare to standards for children of the same age.) Better estimates of the relationships between poverty history and child health may aid n the formulation of health and social policies. For example, identifying ages at which children are most vulnerable to the effects of poverty may allow resources to be targeted effectively, as demonstrated by the age range of children, youth, and young adults studied in this volume (Children's Defense Fund 1994). p. 71
	Bibliography Citation Korenman, Sanders D. and Jane E. Miller. "Effects of Long-Term Poverty on Physical Health of Children in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth" In: Consequences of Growing Up Poor. G.J. Duncan and J. Brooks-Gunn, eds. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997: pp. 70-99

2.	Korenman, Sanders D. Miller, Jane E. Sjaastad, John E.
2.	Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the United States: Results from the NLSY Children and Youth Services Review 17,1/2 (1995): 127-155. Also: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/019074099500006X Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Elsevier Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Alcohol Use; Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Development; Child Health; Children, Home Environment; Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Digit Span (also see Memory for Digit Span - WISC); Family Structure; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Marital Status; Memory for Digit Span (WISC) - also see Digit Span; Mothers, Behavior; Mothers, Education; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Pre/post Natal Behavior; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale) Korenman, Miller, and Sjaastad found that the differences in the abilities of the poor and nonpoor children were not due to differences in the education of the children's mothers, the structure of the children's families (e.g., number of siblings), or whether a child's mother smoked or drank during pregnancy; nor were they explained by the health of the child in infancy or the age of the children's mothers when they first gave birth. The amount of emotional support and cognitive stimulation in a child's home, however, had a major impact on his or her development. The home environment accounted for one-third to one-half of the developmental disadvantage of chronically poor children (children from families whose income-to-needs ratio was below 1.0 over a thirteen-year period). Data used are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which tested children on such things as short-term memory, vocabulary, mathematics, reading comprehension, and word recognition. Sample sizes ranged from 1939 children to 3826 children, depending on the test. The children were tested during their pre-teenage years; most tests were given to children when they were younger than ten years.
	Bibliography Citation Korenman, Sanders D., Jane E. Miller and John E. Sjaastad. "Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the United States: Results from the NLSY." Children and Youth Services Review 17,1/2 (1995): 127-155.

3.	Miller, Jane E.
3.	Poverty Patterns and Cognitive Development in the NLSY Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Child Development; Children; Educational Attainment; Mothers, Education; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Poverty; Test Scores/Test theory/IRT Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Data on children born to women in the NLSY are used to analyze relations between seven types of childhood poverty patterns (based on the number, duration and frequency of poverty spells observed between 1981 and 1991) and scores on the Peabody Individual Achievement Tests (PIAT) in math and reading at ages 5-9 years. Total number of years in poverty appears to matter more than number of spells or income variance: Children who were poor for most of their childhood, whether in one uninterrupted spell or several spells, had lower scores than children who had never been poor. These differences remain even when mother's educational attainment, age at first birth, marital history and other factors that are correlated with both poverty and child development are controlled. Children who experienced one or more short spells of poverty generally did no worse than those who had never been poor. Poverty status in the child's year of birth is strongly associated with cognitive test scores, and explains most of the association between childhood poverty histories and those outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. "Poverty Patterns and Cognitive Development in the NLSY." Presented: New Orleans, LA, Population Association of America, May 1996.

4.	Miller, Jane E. Davis, Diane
4.	Poverty History, Marital History, and Quality of Children's Home Environments Journal of Marriage and Family 59,4 (November 1997): 996-1007. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/353798 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: National Council on Family Relations Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Home Environment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Household Composition; Marital Stability; Maternal Employment; Poverty Analyses of the consequences of poverty often treat poor children as a single, homogeneous group. We study relations among depth or timing of poverty, mother's marital history, and quality of the home environment for children aged 6-9, using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. HOME scores increased markedly with income up to three times the poverty line, particularly for cognitive stimulation. The benefits of having a married mother were larger among children who were not poor than among poor children, particularly for emotional support. Recent poverty was associated with deficits nearly as largely as long-term poverty. However, poverty early in life had no effect on HOME scores at assessment.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Diane Davis. "Poverty History, Marital History, and Quality of Children's Home Environments." Journal of Marriage and Family 59,4 (November 1997): 996-1007.

5.	Miller, Jane E. Korenman, Sanders D.
5.	Long-Term Poverty, Children's Nutritional Status and Growth in the U.S. Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Health; Children; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale); Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we estimate relations among poverty nutritional status and growth of children under age five in the U.S. Long-term (10-year) poverty measures are shown to be more strongly related than short-term measures to the prevalence of "stunting" (low height-for-age) and "wasting" (low weight-for-height). Children from chronically poor families are about 40 percent more likely to be stunted and about 45 percent more likely to be wasted than children from middle income families. Both small size at birth and slower growth after birth appear to contribute to the poor nutritional status of low income children. In our sample, over 10 percent of infants born to chronically poor women are low birthweight compared to only 4.5 percent of infants born to middle-income women. Low-income children also exhibit slower rates of growth in both height and weight. We also estimate multivariate models in order to shed light on the mechanisms whereby long term poverty leads to poor nutritional status among young children.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Sanders D. Korenman. "Long-Term Poverty, Children's Nutritional Status and Growth in the U.S." Presented: Cincinnati, OH, Population Association of America Meetings, April 1993.

6.	Miller, Jane E. Korenman, Sanders D.
6.	Poverty and Children's Nutritional Status in the United States American Journal of Epidemiology 140,3 (1 August 1994): 233-243. Also: http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/140/3/233.abstract Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Johns Hopkins University Press Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Health; Family Structure; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Income Level; Marital Status; Minorities; Mothers, Education; Mothers, Height; Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Parents, Single; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale); Weight This study describes deficits in nutritional status among poor children in the United States using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth for children born between 1979 and 1988. The prevalence of low height-for-age (stunting) and low weight-for-height (wasting) is higher among children in persistently poor families. Differentials appear greater according to long-term rather than short-term income; hence, single-year income measures do not adequately capture the effects of persistent poverty on children's nutritional status. Differences in nutritional status between poor and nonpoor children remain large even when controls for other characteristics associated with poverty, such as low maternal educational attainment, single-parent family structure, young maternal age,low maternal academic ability, and minority racial identification, are included. The excess risks of stunting and wasting among poor children are not reduced appreciably when size of the infant at birth or mother's height and weight are controlled.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Sanders D. Korenman. "Poverty and Children's Nutritional Status in the United States." American Journal of Epidemiology 140,3 (1 August 1994): 233-243.

7.	Miller, Jane E. Korenman, Sanders D.
7.	Poverty Dynamics and Cognitive Development Among Young Children Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Age at First Birth; Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Children, Preschool; Cognitive Development; Disadvantaged, Economically; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Income; Mothers, Education; Motor and Social Development (MSD); Parents, Single; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Social Influences; Test Scores/Test theory/IRT; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We use prospectively collected information from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979-198 to estimate the relation between timing of poverty and several measures of children's cognitive development, including tests of picture vocabulary, reading, mathematics, and motor and social development. Deficits are greatest among children who were poor between birth and age three; deficit are also notable for the prenatally poor. Differentials according to poverty status remain sizeable even in models that also control for other correlates of poverty, including low mother's educational attainment, young age at first birth and single parent family structure. There is evidence that deficit associated with poverty are persistent, cumulative, and interactive across age intervals. Aspects of the home environment measured by the HOME score is a significant mediator between economic deprivation and cognitive development. Maternal academic aptitude is also associated with both poverty and developmental scores.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Sanders D. Korenman. "Poverty Dynamics and Cognitive Development Among Young Children." Presented: San Francisco, CA, Population Association of America Meetings, 1995.

8.	Miller, Jane E. Korenman, Sanders D.
8.	Poverty Dynamics and Cognitive Development Among Young Children Working Paper, Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick NJ, August 1994 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research, Rutgers Univeristy Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Cognitive Development; Marital Status; Motor and Social Development (MSD); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Data from the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth revealed a strong correlation between economic deprivation in the home environment and measures of child cognitive development. Over 25% of the children born to survey participants in 1978-88 were born into households below the poverty level; moreover, 7-15% of those in households currently characterized as non-poor were poor at some point in the child's early life. Poverty between birth and age two years was associated with the most pronounced deficits in areas such as picture vocabulary, reading, mathematics, and motor and social development. Math scores for children currently age five years and over were lower among children who had been poor the first three years of life, suggesting the persistence of the effects of early deprivation. Most severely handicapped were children who had lived in poverty from birth through the year of assessment, and deficits associated with being poor in more than one age interval exceeded the sum of being poor in each of those intervals. Although controls for maternal educational attainment, age at first birth, family structure, race, gender, and birth order did not change this trend, selected characteristics of the home environment (e.g., mother-child interaction, cognitive stimulation, emotional support, and disciplinary methods) mediated the relationship between poverty and child development. These findings underscore the importance of social policy reform that targets children in low-income families as well as early childhood stimulation programs.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Sanders D. Korenman. "Poverty Dynamics and Cognitive Development Among Young Children." Working Paper, Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick NJ, August 1994.

9.	Miller, Jane E. Korenman, Sanders D.
9.	Poverty, Nutritional Status, Growth and Cognitive Development of Children in the United States Working Paper No. 93-5, Princeton NJ: Office of Population Research, Princeton University, 1993 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Office of Population Research, Princeton University Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Development; Child Health; Childhood Education, Early; Children, Academic Development; Cognitive Ability; Cognitive Development; Health, Mental/Psychological; Height; Height, Height-Weight Ratios; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Mothers, Height; Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Poverty; Verbal Memory (McCarthy Scale); Weight; Well-Being Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper describes deficits in nutritional status, physical growth, and cognitive development among poor children in the United States. Data are taken from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which has collected measures of family income each year from 1978 to 1990, and measures of height, weight, and cognitive development of children in 1986, 1988, and 1990. The results suggest that, first, there are substantial nutritional and developmental costs to children in chronically poor families; second, single-year income measures do not adequately capture the effects of chronic poverty on child nutritional status and cognitive development; and third, the adverse effects of chronic poverty are large even when we control for other characteristics associated with poverty such as low educational attainment of mothers, family structure, young maternal age, low academic ability of mother, minority racial identification, and when we control for weight and height of the mother and size of the infant at birth. Both long-term poverty and poor nutritional status are associated with impaired cognitive and socioemotional development in early childhood. Further research is needed before definitive, causal statements can be made. Nonetheless, we find evidence that, compared to children from higher-income families, poor children are at heightened risk of wasting, stunting and cognitive impairment, and experience reduced rates of physical growth in early childhood.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and Sanders D. Korenman. "Poverty, Nutritional Status, Growth and Cognitive Development of Children in the United States." Working Paper No. 93-5, Princeton NJ: Office of Population Research, Princeton University, 1993.

10.	Miller, Jane E. Sjaastad, John E.
10.	Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the United States: Results from the NLSY Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Alcohol Use; Child Development; Cigarette Use (see Smoking); Cognitive Development; Family Structure; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Mothers, Education; Nutritional Status/Nutrition/Consumption Behaviors; Parents, Single; Poverty; Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We describe deficits in cognitive and socioemotional development in early childhood that arc associated with long-term poverty among children from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979-1991. Children who are poor over many years are substantially developmentally disadvantaged compared to those who are not. Developmental deficit associated with long-term poverty are roughly twice as large as those associated with poverty in the year of assessment. These deficits are not accounted for by characteristics associated with poverty such as low maternal education, single parent family structure, young age of the mother at first birth, large family size, smoking or alcohol during pregnancy, minority racial identification, or by deficits in nutritional status or poor health at birth. The HOME (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment) assessment score and maternal AFQT score and account for a large part of the cognitive deficit, although sizable deficits remain after controlling for both factors.
	Bibliography Citation Miller, Jane E. and John E. Sjaastad. "Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the United States: Results from the NLSY." Presented: Miami, FL, Population Association of America Meetings, May 1994.

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