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Author: Norberg, Karen

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1.	Norberg, Karen
1.	Dads and Cads: Parental Cohabitation and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2003 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Women Publisher: Population Association of America Keyword(s): Family Formation; Family Structure; Gender; Parental Influences; Sex Ratios Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Evolutionary theory predicts that parents may bias the sex ratio of their offspring according to environmental conditions. Here, I test the prediction that parents may tend to produce males under conditions forecasting two-parent care, and females under conditions forecasting one-parent care. Using individual-level longitudinal data pooled from four public-use US surveys, I find that parents who were living with an opposite-sex partner or spouse were more likely to have a male child than parents who were living apart. The effect is small, but statistically significant (p < .0001). It is discernable when comparisons are made among sibling within the same family (OR 1.17, p
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen. "Dads and Cads: Parental Cohabitation and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth." Presented: Minneapolis, MN, Population Association of America Annual Meeting, May 2003.

2.	Norberg, Karen
2.	Effects of Daycare Reconsidered NBER Working Paper No. 6769, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998. Also: http://nber.nber.org/papers/W6769 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Child Care; Child Development; Child Health; Children, Illness; Disability; Maternal Employment; Motor and Social Development (MSD); Re-employment; Temperament; Work History Abstract: Do children of employed mothers differ from other children, even before mother's (re)entry to the labor force? Preexisting differences among children may be an alternative explanation for many apparent daycare outcome effects. Data from the 1994 wave of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth were available for 6603 singleton infants followed from birth. Mothers of children with intrauterine growth retardation, birth defects, or extended hospitalization at birth began working significantly later after the birth of the child, and mothers of infants with higher development scores and more difficult temperament, and mothers of healthy premature infants, began working significantly earlier. The associations with newborn health persisted when the comparisons were made among siblings. The magnitudes of the effects were large enough to have practical importance. After controlling for both observed and unobserved differences between families, a mother was only 50% as likely to have been employed at all in the first five years after the birth of a high risk infant. About 20% of low-income newborns in the sample were classified as problems may therefore have resulted in a 10% lower labor force participation rate among low-income mothers of children under five. Examines the possibility that infant health, temperament, and development may have significant effects on mothers' employment; focuses on work history, timing of job (re)entry, allocation of household resources, and four indicators of newborns' health; 1980-94, chiefly; US. Based on data for 6,603 infants followed from birth, from the 1994 wave of the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen. "Effects of Daycare Reconsidered." NBER Working Paper No. 6769, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998.

3.	Norberg, Karen
3.	Effects of Daycare Reconsidered Presented: Cambridge, MA, Meeting of the Well-Being of Children Program of the National Bureau of Economic Research, April 1998 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Armed Forces Qualifications Test (AFQT); Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Birthweight; Child Care; Child Development; Child Health; Disability; Maternal Employment; Mothers, Health; Motor and Social Development (MSD); Pre/post Natal Health Care; Re-employment; Temperament; Work History Examines the effects of infant health, temperament, and development on mothers' employment; focuses on work history, timing of job (re)entry, allocation of household resources, and four indicators of newborns' health; 1980-94, chiefly; US: birthweight; prematurity; weight for gestational age; birth defect or extended hospitalization at birth. Based on data for 6,603 infants followed from birth, from the 1994 wave of the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen. "Effects of Daycare Reconsidered." Presented: Cambridge, MA, Meeting of the Well-Being of Children Program of the National Bureau of Economic Research, April 1998.

4.	Norberg, Karen
4.	Partnership Status and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth NBER Working Paper 10920, National Bureau Of Economic Research, November 2004. Also: http://www.nber.org/papers/w10920.pdf Cohort(s): Mature Women, NLSY79 Publisher: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Keyword(s): Family Formation; Family Structure; Fertility; Gender; National Collaborative Perinatal Project (NCPP); National Survey of American Families (NSAF); Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID); Sex Ratios If two-parent care has different consequences for the reproductive success of sons and daughters, then natural selection may favor adjustment of the sex ratio at birth according to circumstances that forecast later family structure. In humans, this partnership status hypothesis predicts fewer sons among extra-pair conceptions, but the rival "attractiveness" hypothesis predicts more sons among extra-pair conceptions, and the "fixed phenotype" hypothesis predicts a constant probability of having a son, regardless of partnership status. In a sample of 86,436 human births pooled from five US population-based surveys, I find 51.5% male births reported by respondents who were living with a spouse or partner before the child's conception or birth, and 49.9% male births reported by respondents who were not (X2=16.77, d.f. = 1, p<.0001). The effect was not explained by paternal bias against daughters, by parental age, education, income, ethnicity, or by year of observation, and was larger when comparisons were made between siblings. To my knowledge, this is the first direct evidence for conditional adjustment of the sex ratio at birth in humans, and could explain the recent decline in the sex ratio at birth in some developed countries.
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen. "Partnership Status and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth." NBER Working Paper 10920, National Bureau Of Economic Research, November 2004.

5.	Norberg, Karen
5.	Partnership Status and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Biological Sciences 271,1555 (November 22, 2004): 2403-2410. Also: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/271/1555/2381 Cohort(s): NLSY79, Young Men Publisher: Royal Society of London Keyword(s): Family Formation; Family Structure; Fertility; Gender; National Collaborative Perinatal Project (NCPP); National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG); Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID); Sex Ratios Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. If two-parent care has different consequences for the reproductive success of sons and daughters, then natural selection may favour adjustment of the sex ratio at birth according to circumstances that forecast later family structure. In humans, this partnership-status hypothesis predicts fewer sons among extra-pair conceptions, but the rival 'attractiveness' hypothesis predicts more sons among extra-pair conceptions, and the 'fixed-phenotype' hypothesis predicts a constant probability of having a son, regardless of partnership status. In a sample of 86 436 human births pooled from five US population-based surveys, I found 51.5% male births reported by respondents who were living with a spouse or partner before the child's conception or birth, and 49.9% male births reported by respondents who were not (chi(2)=16.77 d.f.=1 p<0.0001). The effect was not explained by paternal bias against daughters, by parental age, education, income, ethnicity or by year of observation, and was larger when comparisons were made between siblings. To my knowledge, this is the first direct evidence for conditional adjustment of the sex ratio at birth in humans, and could explain the recent decline in the sex ratio at birth in some developed countries.
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen. "Partnership Status and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Biological Sciences 271,1555 (November 22, 2004): 2403-2410.

6.	Norberg, Karen Pantano, Juan
6.	Cesarean Sections and Subsequent Fertility Working Paper, Washington University in St. Louis, January 2013 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Washington University Keyword(s): Birth Outcomes; Birth Rate; Births, Repeat / Spacing; Demographic and Health Surveys; Fertility; National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG); Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Cesarean sections are rising all over the world and may, in some countries, soon become the most common delivery mode. A growing body of medical literature documents a robust fact: women undergoing cesarean sections end up having less children. While this medical literature conjectures that this is mostly due to a physiological channel, we adopt a more economic approach to guide our empirical examination of the link between c-sections and subsequent fertility. Exploiting several data sources and adopting a variety of empirical strategies we show that in addition to plausible biological constraints, maternal choices after a cesarean seem to be playing an important role in shaping the negative association between c-sections and subsequent fertility.
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen and Juan Pantano. "Cesarean Sections and Subsequent Fertility." Working Paper, Washington University in St. Louis, January 2013.

7.	Norberg, Karen Pantano, Juan
7.	Cesarean Sections and Subsequent Fertility Journal of Population Economics 29,1 (January 2016): 5-37. Also: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00148-015-0567-7 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Contraception; Demographic and Health Surveys; Fertility; National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG); Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Cesarean sections are rising all over the world and may, in some countries, soon become the most common delivery mode. A growing body of medical literature documents a robust fact: women undergoing cesarean sections end up having less children. Unlike most of the medical literature, which assumes that this association is mostly working through a physiological channel, we investigate a possible channel linking c-section and subsequent fertility through differences in maternal behavior after a c-section. Using several national and cross-national demographic data sources, we find evidence that maternal choice is playing an important role in shaping the negative association between cesarean section and subsequent fertility. In particular, we show that women are more likely to engage in active contraception after a cesarean delivery and conclude that intentional avoidance of subsequent pregnancies after a c-section seems to be responsible for part of the negative association between c-sections and subsequent fertility.
	Bibliography Citation Norberg, Karen and Juan Pantano. "Cesarean Sections and Subsequent Fertility." Journal of Population Economics 29,1 (January 2016): 5-37.

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