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Source: Race and Social Problems

Resulting in 9 citations.

1.	Addo, Fenaba Houle, Jason N. Simon, Daniel
1.	Young, Black, and (Still) in the Red: Parental Wealth, Race, and Student Loan Debt Race and Social Problems 8,1 (March 2016): 64-76. Also: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-016-9162-0 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): College Cost; Debt/Borrowing; Family Resources; Financial Assistance; Net Worth; Parental Investments; Racial Differences; Student Loans / Student Aid Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Taking out student loans to assist with the costs of postsecondary schooling in the US has become the norm in recent decades. The debt burden young adults acquire during the higher education process, however, is increasingly stratified with black young adults holding greater debt burden than whites. Using data from the NLSY 1997 cohort, we examine racial differences in student loan debt acquisition and parental net wealth as a predictor contributing to this growing divide. We have four main results. First, confirming prior research, black young adults have substantially more debt than their white counterparts. Second, we find that this difference is partially explained by differences in wealth, family background, postsecondary educational differences, and family contributions to college. Third, young adults' net worth explain a portion of the black-white disparity in debt, suggesting that both differences in accumulation of debt and ability to repay debt in young adulthood explain racial disparities in debt. Fourth, the black-white disparity in debt is greatest at the highest levels of parents' net worth. Our findings show that while social and economic experiences can help explain racial disparities in debt, the situation is more precarious for black youth, who are not protected by their parents' wealth. This suggests that the increasing costs of higher education and corresponding rise in student loan debt are creating a new form of stratification for recent cohorts of young adults, and that student loan debt may be a new mechanism by which racial economic disparities are inherited across generations.
	Bibliography Citation Addo, Fenaba, Jason N. Houle and Daniel Simon. "Young, Black, and (Still) in the Red: Parental Wealth, Race, and Student Loan Debt." Race and Social Problems 8,1 (March 2016): 64-76.

2.	Cohen, Alison K. Ryan, Sarah Smith, Louisa H. Ream, Robert K. Glymour, M. Maria Lopez, Andrea Yen, Irene H.
2.	Educational Attainment Past the Traditional Age of Completion for Two Cohorts of US Adults: Inequalities by Gender and Race/Ethnicity Race and Social Problems published online (16 December 2021): DOI:10.1007/s12552-021-09352-1. Also: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-021-09352-1 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Childhood Adversity/Trauma; Education, Adult; Educational Attainment; Ethnic Differences; Family Background and Culture; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Life Course; Mobility, Social; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The vast majority of studies investigating participation in, persistence through, and consequences of postsecondary education focus on educational attainment status among the so-called traditional population of collegegoers between the ages of 18 and 24. This narrow focus leaves largely invisible the role that an expanding set of educational trajectories throughout adulthood plays in shaping social stratification. Using 35-plus and 20 years of follow-up data from the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY)'s 1979 and 1997 cohorts, we find that a substantial share within each cohort is attaining education well into adulthood, and that these trajectories are patterned according to key social and demographic characteristics. In both cohorts, racial/ethnic differences in educational attainment grew over time and, for those attaining the same degree, members of historically disadvantaged groups did so at an older age. Cohort differences in trajectories emerged, however, when considering the intersection of race/ethnicity and socialized gender. Through careful descriptive analysis of two generational cohorts, our study makes clear the role of educational trajectories in the process of cumulative (dis)advantage across the life course, as well as across generations.
	Bibliography Citation Cohen, Alison K., Sarah Ryan, Louisa H. Smith, Robert K. Ream, M. Maria Glymour, Andrea Lopez and Irene H. Yen. "Educational Attainment Past the Traditional Age of Completion for Two Cohorts of US Adults: Inequalities by Gender and Race/Ethnicity." Race and Social Problems published online (16 December 2021): DOI:10.1007/s12552-021-09352-1.

3.	Friedline, Terri West, Stacia
3.	Young Adults' Race, Wealth, and Entrepreneurship Race and Social Problems 8,1 (March 2016): 42-63. Also: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-016-9163-z Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Assets; Debt/Borrowing; Entrepreneurship; Ethnic Differences; Net Worth; Racial Differences; Wealth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study explored relationships among young adults' wealth and entrepreneurial activities with emphasis on how these relationships differed among racial and ethnic groups. Using data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, results indicated that young adults' (N = 8984) higher accumulated amounts of wealth were associated with pursuing self-employment at higher rates; however, differences emerged when the associations were explored with various types of wealth and within racial and ethnic groups. Black young adults' greater debt and net worth were associated with their increased likelihoods of self-employment. Among Latino/a young adults, greater liquid assets and net worth were associated with increased likelihoods of self-employment. Wealth was unrelated to white young adults' self-employment. Wealth appeared to play an outsized role in the self-employment of black and Latino/a young adults compared to that of their white counterparts. In other words, racial and ethnic minority young adults may have a heavier burden for generating their own capital to embark on entrepreneurial activities when mainstream credit markets are unresponsive or inaccessible. Policy implications are discussed.
	Bibliography Citation Friedline, Terri and Stacia West. "Young Adults' Race, Wealth, and Entrepreneurship." Race and Social Problems 8,1 (March 2016): 42-63.

4.	Hannon, Lance DeFina, Robert
4.	Just Skin Deep? The Impact of Interviewer Race on the Assessment of African American Respondent Skin Tone Race and Social Problems 6,4 (December 2014): 356-364. Also: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-014-9128-z Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Discrimination; General Social Survey (GSS); Interviewer Characteristics; Racial Differences; Racial Equality/Inequality; Skin Tone Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Over the last decade, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has seen a significant increase in the number of discrimination claims based on skin shade. However, in some ways, substantiating colorism has proven to be more difficult than documenting racism, as skin tone data are rarely collected and few existing skin tone measures have been validated. The present study examines an increasingly popular skin tone scale that includes a professionally designed color guide to enhance rater consistency. Logistic regression analysis of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and General Social Survey indicates that despite the addition of the color guide, the race of the interviewer matters for the assessment of respondent skin tone. On average, African American respondents with a white interviewer were about 3 times more likely to be classified as dark than those with an African American interviewer. We argue that failing to appropriately account for this race-of-interviewer effect can significantly impact colorism findings.
	Bibliography Citation Hannon, Lance and Robert DeFina. "Just Skin Deep? The Impact of Interviewer Race on the Assessment of African American Respondent Skin Tone." Race and Social Problems 6,4 (December 2014): 356-364.

5.	Hannon, Lance DeFina, Robert Bruch, Sarah
5.	The Relationship Between Skin Tone and School Suspension for African Americans Race and Social Problems 5,4 (December 2013): 281-295. Also: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-013-9104-z Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Black Studies; Discrimination; National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth); Racial Differences; School Suspension/Expulsion; Skin Tone Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study contributes to the research literature on colorism–discrimination based on skin tone—by examining whether skin darkness affects the likelihood that African Americans will experience school suspension. Using data from The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, logistic regression analyses indicated that darker skin tone significantly increased the odds of suspension for African American adolescents. Closer inspection of the data revealed that this overall result was disproportionately driven by the experiences of African American females. The odds of suspension were about 3 times greater for young African American women with the darkest skin tone compared to those with the lightest skin. This finding was robust to the inclusion of controls for parental SES, delinquent behavior, academic performance, and several other variables. Furthermore, this finding was replicated using similar measures in a different sample of African Americans from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The results suggest that discrimination in school discipline goes beyond broad categories of race to include additional distinctions in skin tone.
	Bibliography Citation Hannon, Lance, Robert DeFina and Sarah Bruch. "The Relationship Between Skin Tone and School Suspension for African Americans." Race and Social Problems 5,4 (December 2013): 281-295.

6.	Koch, David W. Lee, Jaewon Lee, Kyunghee
6.	Coloring the War on Drugs: Arrest Disparities in Black, Brown, and White Race and Social Problems 8,4 (December 2016): 313-325. Also: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-016-9185-6 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Arrests; Drug Use; Racial Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) data, this study examines racial disparities in arrests for drug offending. Of the total 8984 NLSY97 participants, the study sample was restricted to the 4868 respondents who had ever reported using drugs (black = 1191, Hispanic = 980, white = 2697). The study questions are as follows: (1) Are there racial disparities in arrests for drug use, after controlling for incidence of drug use as well as other socio-demographic variables? (2) Are there racial disparities in arrests for drug dealing, after controlling for incidence of drug dealing as well as other socio-demographic variables? Compared with whites, blacks were more likely to be arrested for drug offending, even after controlling for incidence and other socio-demographic variables. Several socio-demographic variables, particularly gender, were also associated with arrests for drug offending. Bans on racial profiling and other legislative and policy changes are considered as potential strategies to ameliorate drug enforcement disparities.
	Bibliography Citation Koch, David W., Jaewon Lee and Kyunghee Lee. "Coloring the War on Drugs: Arrest Disparities in Black, Brown, and White." Race and Social Problems 8,4 (December 2016): 313-325.

7.	Petts, Amy L.
7.	Mapping Racial Boundaries: For Whom Do Varying Racial Identities Decrease Happiness? Race and Social Problems published online (3 November 2019): DOI: 10.1007/s12552-019-09271-2. Also: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-019-09271-2 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Happiness (see Positive Affect/Optimism); Racial Equality/Inequality; Racial Studies Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Racial boundaries are hard to measure but consequential for understanding larger processes of racial inequality. Some argue that the racial hierarchy is expanding to include a third category for non-black minority identities while others believe that a binary racial hierarchy will persist as many non-black minorities will come to be seen as white. I use the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997 to investigate how racial identities that vary (either because racial identities changed across survey waves or because racial identities are incongruent with interviewer perceptions) speak to each of these theories. I assess the frequency of different racial variations and how different patterns of racial variations are associated with individuals' perceived level of happiness. When racial identities vary across time, context, or the perception of others, the work required to negotiate a racial identity can take a psychological toll and may decrease happiness. I find support for the whitening hypothesis; the most common type of racial variation includes respondents classified as non-black minorities by a household member later claiming a white identity. And, for those individuals, claiming a white identity is congruent with how they are perceived by interviewers. In addition, only for individuals who crossed black boundaries is racial variability consequential to perceived happiness, evidencing a strong racial boundary between black and anything else and more permeability in the boundary between non-black minorities and whites.
	Bibliography Citation Petts, Amy L. "Mapping Racial Boundaries: For Whom Do Varying Racial Identities Decrease Happiness?" Race and Social Problems published online (3 November 2019): DOI: 10.1007/s12552-019-09271-2.

8.	Stansfield, Richard
8.	A Multilevel Analysis of Hispanic Youth, Exposure to the United States, and Retail Theft Race and Social Problems 4,2 (June 2012): 121-132. Also: http://www.springerlink.com/content/8118040418m42363/ Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Crime; Hispanic Youth; Home Environment; Immigrants; Modeling, Random Effects Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Panel data in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97) provide an excellent opportunity to examine the relationship between Hispanic immigration, assimilation, and retail theft. This study examines the relationship between length of time Hispanic youth have spent in America, with the probability of stealing from a store. After controlling for traditional predictors of crime that are correlated with adolescence and immigrant status, random effects logistic regression models indicate that immigrants are less likely to steal than non-immigrants. However, calculating the marginal effects of time spent in the United States reveals that their probability increases with assimilation. Supplementary analyses specify that Hispanic youth who enter the United States within their first 5 years of age will have higher odds of engaging in retail theft. Supportive parenting and a structured home environment is a consistent protective factor in the models. Policies targeting pro-family and social identification are likely to benefit immigrant youth as they acculturate to America.
	Bibliography Citation Stansfield, Richard. "A Multilevel Analysis of Hispanic Youth, Exposure to the United States, and Retail Theft." Race and Social Problems 4,2 (June 2012): 121-132.

9.	Zaw, Khaing Hamilton, Darrick Darity, William A. Jr.
9.	Race, Wealth and Incarceration: Results from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Race and Social Problems 8,1 (March 2016): 103-115. Also: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12552-016-9164-y Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Springer Keyword(s): Incarceration/Jail; Racial Differences; Wealth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Using the 1979 cohort of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth to explore the interwoven links between race, wealth and incarceration, this study examines the data on race and wealth status before and after incarceration. Data indicate that although higher levels of wealth were associated with lower rates of incarceration, the likelihood of future incarceration still was higher for blacks at every level of wealth compared to the white likelihood, as well as the Hispanic likelihood, which fell below the white likelihood for some levels of wealth. Further, we find that racial wealth gaps existed among those who would be incarcerated in the future and also among the previously incarcerated.
	Bibliography Citation Zaw, Khaing, Darrick Hamilton and William A. Jr. Darity. "Race, Wealth and Incarceration: Results from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth." Race and Social Problems 8,1 (March 2016): 103-115.

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