• Older Men cohort
• Young Men cohort

Older Men cohort

Work-related variables

Each survey except 1968 asked respondents whether their health limited the kind or amount of work they could do. A supplemental series of questions, fielded during 1966, 1969, 1976, 1981, and 1990, gathered information on the duration of the respondent's limitation and on whether his health prevented him from working altogether. The 1976 survey determined whether any of the respondent's reported health problems were the result of an accidental injury and whether the most serious injury occurred on the job. Finally, in 1976 and 1981, retrospective questions asked whether the respondent had ever been prevented from working for 6 or more months due to a health problem and the duration of this limitation.

A series of questions, shown in Figure OM1 below, asked respondents to describe the types of physical activities which their job regularly involved. In several surveys, respondents were also asked to identify specific workplace characteristics that would cause them trouble because of their health.

General physical health

A comprehensive set of health-related variables is available for all respondents. This data collection includes information on the respondent's health status, perceived health changes over time, and the types of health-related problems and specific health conditions experienced. To provide a general overview of his health, each respondent was asked during the 1966, 1969, and 1978-90 surveys to rate his health as excellent, good, fair, or poor compared to other men his age. Questions were fielded in 1967, 1971, and 1976-83 on whether the respondent considered his health to have remained about the same, improved, or worsened over a set period of time (e.g., the past five years). Self-reported height and weight data are available for respondents interviewed during 1973 or 1990.

Several interviews included question series assessing the respondent's overall physical condition. These series, and the years when they were included, are described in Figure OM1.

Because the respondents were in their 70s and early 80s at that time, the 1990 survey collected significantly more health information than previous years' questionnaires. In addition to the questions described elsewhere in this section, the sample person questionnaire asked Older Men who were still living about the topics outlined in Figure OM2.

If the respondent was deceased at the time of the 1990 interview, the widow questionnaire gathered information about the last year of the respondent's life. The widow reported whether and how long the respondent had been ill before his death, the amount of nursing care she provided for the respondent, and the main cause of death. Widows also answered questions, somewhat less detailed than those in the sample person questionnaire, about use of medical services in the year before the respondent's death. Finally, the widow estimated the total cost of her husband's medical care in the year before his death, reported the amount paid by the sample person and widow, and described sources of payment for remaining bills (Medicare, private insurance, employer/union, veteran's benefits, relatives, etc.).

In conjunction with this survey, up to four causes of death of deceased respondents were recorded from death certificates on file at state vital records departments. These administrative data supplement the cause of death information collected on 2,166 deceased respondents directly from the widows or next-of-kin. Table OM1 compares the causes of death as reported by widows or next-of-kin and as listed on the death certificate.

Health insurance

Two surveys collected information on the respondent's medical insurance. In 1981, the respondent reported whether he was covered by part A of Medicare, part B of Medicare, Medicaid, or any other medical or hospital insurance. The survey also asked if the respondent was a member of a health maintenance organization (HMO) and whether he was eligible for free hospital or medical care due to veteran status. As part of this series, respondents stated whether they had received any hospital or medical care in the past year that was paid for by Medicare, other health insurance, or Medicaid.

The 1990 interview asked sample persons whether they were eligible for Medicare part A and part B, as well as whether they had received any care paid for by Medicaid in past 12 months. If the respondent was covered by a plan other than Medicare, he reported whether it paid hospital expenses and doctor's bills, whether it was obtained through an employer or union, and whether the employer or union paid all or part of the premium. If the respondent was not covered by any insurance (other than Medicare), the interview asked him to state the reason. Finally, respondents were asked how they paid for medical expenses not covered by insurance in the past 12 months (savings, current income, debt).

Psychological well-being

A collection of variables related to mental health is available for this cohort. Table OM2 provides reference numbers for the psychological well-being scales and questions described in this section.

In four surveys, the Older Men gave responses to an abbreviated version of Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale (1966). This scale measures locus of control, with internal control referring to the perception of events as being under personal control and external control meaning that events are perceived as unrelated to one's own behavior. The abbreviated scale used in the first three administrations included the 11 items from the original 23-item Rotter scale that were the most general and oriented to the adult world of work. The modified scale has been shown to be highly correlated with the original 23-item scale (see Parnes et al. 1974, Appendix to Chapter VI). In 1981, this scale was further reduced to only four items.

Reducing the number of items from 23 to 11 would have resulted in an overall reduction in the range of scores. To avoid this situation, the response format was modified to four choices rather than the two in the original scale. The respondent was first read a pair of statements representing opposite views and asked which statement was closer to his own opinion. He then stated whether the chosen statement was much closer to his own view or only slightly closer. These answers were combined into one score along a 4-point scale in the data set. The total score was obtained by summing the values of all 11 items, resulting in a range of 11 to 44 (4 to 16 in 1981) in order of increasing external control.

A second scale used in multiple surveys is the Bradburn Affect Balance Scale (Bradburn, 1969). This measure of positive and negative feelings in the weeks before the interview provides an indication of the respondent's general psychological well-being. The 10 statements used in the Older Men questionnaires asked, for example, whether the respondent felt particularly excited or interested in something in the past few weeks, whether he was so restless he could not sit long in a chair, and whether he felt that things were going his way.

Two scales were used only in the 1990 survey. Addressed only to sample persons (Older Men respondents still living at the time of the interview), the first series used 10 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale. This scale measures symptoms of depression and discriminates between clinically depressed individuals and others; it is highly correlated with other depression rating scales (see Radloff 1977; Ross and Mirowsky 1989). To provide researchers with an assessment of their cognitive functioning, both sample persons and widows responded to the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (Pfeiffer, 1975). This scale is scored by awarding respondents one point for each correct answer. A score of 2 or less signifies severe cognitive impairment, scores of 3-5 indicate moderate cognitive impairment, and scores of 6 or more indicate mild or no impairment. Pfeiffer cautions that some adjustments need to be made for race and educational level.

Finally, in 1976-90, respondents answered questions about their satisfaction with various aspects of their lives and with life in general. On a 4-point scale, respondents reported their happiness with their housing, the local area in which they lived, their health, their standard of living, and their leisure time activities.

Family member health

Limited information was collected about the health of the respondent's family members. In most personal interviews, the respondent reported whether his wife was limited in the amount or kind or work or housework she could do and the duration of this limitation. In personal interviews beginning in 1971, the respondent also stated whether his wife's health problem limited his own work or activities. In 1971, 1976, 1981, and 1990, respondents answered the series of questions about assistance with daily life (see Figure OM1) with respect to their wives. In 1990, interviewed sample persons reported whether their wife was in a long-term care institution; interviewed widows who lived in long-term care institutions (or their proxies) answered the same series of questions as sample persons about the length of and payment for their current stay (see Figure OM2). Finally, the 1981 survey and 1990 sample person questionnaire asked the respondent about his wife's Medicare coverage and health insurance.

In the 1971 survey only, respondents were asked whether any family members were unable to work or go to school due to a health condition. If so, the respondent then stated whether the family member's health affected his own employment.

Young Men cohort

Work-related variables

Each survey except 1967 and 1969 asked respondents whether their health limited the kind or amount of work they could do. In the early years, when some respondents had not yet entered the labor force, they were also asked whether their health limited their schooling or other activities. In most years, the respondents provided information on the duration of the limitation. The 1976 survey determined whether any of the respondent's health problems were the result of an accidental injury and whether the most serious injury occurred on the job. Finally, in 1976 and 1981, retrospective questions asked whether the respondent had ever been prevented from working for 6 or more months due to a health problem and the duration of this limitation.

A series of questions that were also asked of the Older Men asked respondents to describe the types of physical activities that their job regularly involved. In several surveys, respondents were also asked to identify specific workplace characteristics that would cause them trouble because of their health.

General physical health

This data collection includes information on the respondent's health status, perceived health changes over time, and the types of health-related problems and specific health conditions experienced. To provide a general overview of his health, each respondent was asked during the 1971, 1976, and 1981 surveys whether he considered his health to have remained about the same, improved, or worsened over a set period of time (e.g., the past five years). Self-reported height and weight data are available for respondents interviewed during 1973.

Several interviews included question series assessing the respondent's overall physical condition. The years in which these series were included are provided in Figure YM1.

Psychological well-being

In three surveys, Young Men respondents were administered an abbreviated version of Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale (1966). For additional information about the content of this scale, researchers should refer to the Older Men discussion above. The Young Men scale is constructed and scored in the same manner as the Older Men version. The reference numbers and years for the Rotter scale administration are as follows:

• 1968: R01377.-R01387., R01674. (total score)
• 1971: R03526.-R03536., R03898. (total score)
• 1976: R04921.-R04941. (total score not created)

Family member health

Limited information was collected about the health of the respondent's family members. In most personal interviews, the respondent reported whether his wife was limited in the amount or kind of work or housework she could do and the duration of this limitation. In 1971, 1976, and 1981, the respondent also stated whether his wife's health problem limited his own work or activities. In 1971, respondents answered the series of questions about assistance with daily life (see Figure OM1) with respect to their wives.

In the 1971 survey only, respondents were asked whether any family members were unable to work or go to school due to a health condition. If so, the respondent then stated whether the family member's health affected his own employment.

References

Bradburn, Norman M. The Structure of Psychological Well-Being. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1969.

Parnes, Herbert S., Adams, Arvil V.; Andrisani, Paul J.; Kohen, Andrew I.; and Nestel, Gilbert. The Pre-Retirement Years: Five Years in the Work Lives of Middle-aged Men, Vol. 4. Columbus, OH: CHRR, The Ohio State University, 1974.

Pfeiffer, Eric, M.D. "A Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire for the Assessment of Organic Brain Deficit in Elderly Patients." Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 23,10 (October 1975): 433-41.

Radloff, Lenore Sawyer. "The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population." Applied Psychological Measurement 1,3 (Summer 1977): 385-401.

Ross, Catherine E. and Mirowsky, John. "Explaining the Social Patterns of Depression: Control and Problem Solving--or Support and Talking?" Journal of Health and Social Behavior 30 (June 1989): 206-9.

Rotter, Julian B. "Generalized Expectancies for Internal vs. External Control of Reinforcements." Psychological Monographs 80,1 (1966): 1-28.