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Author: Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons

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1.	England, Paula A. McClintock, Elizabeth Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons
1.	Birth Control Use and Early, Unintended Births: Evidence for a Class Gradient In: Social Class and Changing Families in an Unequal America. Marcia J. Carlson and Paula England, eds., Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011: 21-49 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Stanford University Press Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Age at First Birth; Age at First Intercourse; Contraception; Current Population Survey (CPS) / CPS-Fertility Supplement; Locus of Control (see Rotter Scale); Mothers, Education; National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth); Rotter Scale (see Locus of Control); Socioeconomic Status (SES) In this chapter we focus on a more causally ï¿½upstreamï¿½ set of causes for class differences in family patterns. As we will show, more-advantaged youths begin engaging in intercourse slightly later and, as young adults, use birth control (contraception and abortion) more consistently. As a result, they are much less likely to become parents early, or to have unintended births at any age. While early births are not always unintended, and not all unintended pregnancies are early, the two phenomena are empirically linked: a national survey asking women about their childbearing between 1997 and 2002 found that 78 percent of births to women under age 20 resulted from unintended pregnancies, compared to 45 percent among women 20ï¿½ 24, and 24 percent among women 25ï¿½ 44 (Kissin et al. 2008). This is probably because few see the teen years as appropriate for childbearing, and because anyone who has a high propensity for unplanned pregnancies because of inconsistent contraceptive use will probably have an unplanned pregnancy shortly after the initiation of sexual activity. As Bongaarts (1978) has pointed out, sex and birth control are the proximate determinants of fertility. It follows that class differences affecting early fertility must operate through these proximate determinants. Once premarital sex is ubiquitous, unintended fertility is particularly likely to flow from lack of consistent use of birth control.
	Bibliography Citation England, Paula A., Elizabeth McClintock and Emily Fitzgibbons Shafer. "Birth Control Use and Early, Unintended Births: Evidence for a Class Gradient" In: Social Class and Changing Families in an Unequal America. Marcia J. Carlson and Paula England, eds., Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011: 21-49

2.	Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons
2.	The Effect of Marriage on Weight Gain and Propensity to Become Obese in the African American Community Journal of Family Issues 31,9 (September 2010): 1166-1182. Also: http://jfi.sagepub.com/content/31/9/1166.abstract Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Sage Publications Keyword(s): Body Mass Index (BMI); Gender Differences; Health Factors; Racial Differences; Weight Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Does marriage have a causal impact on weight and the likelihood of becoming obese? Marriage is thought to have a protective influence on both men's and women's health, although via different mechanisms. Evidence in regard to marriage affecting body mass index (BMI) and the propensity to become obese, however, is mixed and often based on limited data. Even less clear is whether the effect varies by race and gender. In this article, the author uses the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979), which has followed individuals for more than 20 years, and uses methods aimed at netting out selection bias to show that marriage is associated with a modest increase in BMI for all race and gender groups. Additionally, marriage is associated with an increase in the likelihood for becoming obese for African American women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
	Bibliography Citation Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons. "The Effect of Marriage on Weight Gain and Propensity to Become Obese in the African American Community." Journal of Family Issues 31,9 (September 2010): 1166-1182.

3.	Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons
3.	Wives' Relative Wages, Husbands' Paid Work Hours, and Wives' Labor-Force Exit Journal of Marriage and Family 73,1 (February 2011): 250-264. Also: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00802.x/abstract Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Blackwell Publishing, Inc. => Wiley Online Keyword(s): Economics of Gender; Event History; Exits; Labor Force Participation; Wage Differentials; Wage Levels; Wage Rates; Wives, Income Economic theories predict that women are more likely to exit the labor force if their partners' earnings are higher and if their own wage rate is lower. In this article, I use the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 2,254) and discrete-time event-history analysis to show that wives' relative wages are more predictive of their exit than are their own or their husbands' absolute wages. In addition, I show that women married to men who work more than 45 hours per week are more likely to exit the labor force than are wives whose husbands' work approximately 40 hours per week. My findings highlight the need to examine how women's partners affect women's labor-force participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Journal of Marriage & Family is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
	Bibliography Citation Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons. "Wives' Relative Wages, Husbands' Paid Work Hours, and Wives' Labor-Force Exit." Journal of Marriage and Family 73,1 (February 2011): 250-264.

4.	Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons Malhotra, Neil
4.	The Effect of a Child’s Sex on Support for Traditional Gender Roles Social Forces 90,1 (September 2011): 209-222. Also: http://sf.oxfordjournals.org/content/90/1/209.abstract Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Oxford University Press Keyword(s): Birth Outcomes; Gender; Gender Attitudes/Roles; Gender Differences Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We examine whether sex of child affects parents' beliefs about traditional gender roles. Using an improved methodological approach that explicitly analyzes the natural experiment via differences in differences, we find that having a daughter (vs. having a son) causes men to reduce their support for traditional gender roles, but a female child has no such effect among women, representing less than 4 percent of the size of the standard deviation of the attitude scale.
	Bibliography Citation Shafer, Emily Fitzgibbons and Neil Malhotra. "The Effect of a Child’s Sex on Support for Traditional Gender Roles." Social Forces 90,1 (September 2011): 209-222.

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