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Source: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University

Resulting in 14 citations.

1.	Hango, Darcy William
1.	Anchoring of American Families to their Homes and Neighborhoods: Determining Factors of Residential Mobility Working Paper, Department of Soctiology, The Ohio State University, 2002. Also: http://www.canpopsoc.org/2002/hango_2002.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Geocoded Data; Hispanics; Home Ownership; Mobility; Neighborhood Effects; Residence Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This current research views family residential mobility as a potential strategy that families may use to improve their relative socioeconomic and geographic position. The focus here is on predicting the avenues and barriers to mobility, both in terms of distance and also between poor and nonpoor neighbourhoods. A driving assumption is that 'upward' moves from poor to nonpoor neighbourhoods are beneficial to the well-being of children, while downward' moves have the opposite effect. Longitudinal data from the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth linked mother-child files are combined with data from the 1990 US census to assess the salient factors that predict mobility between 1988 and 1994. Black and Hispanic families are less likely to leave poor neighbourhoods for nonpoor ones, and are also more likely to move from nonpoor neighbourhoods to poor ones. Homeownership is an impediment to residential mobility regardless of distance moved, or neighbourhood poverty level at origin and destination, and mother's prior delinquency appears to inhibit 'upward' geographic mobility. The findings are discussed in terms of how they affect racial residential segregation and the well-being of children.
	Bibliography Citation Hango, Darcy William. "Anchoring of American Families to their Homes and Neighborhoods: Determining Factors of Residential Mobility." Working Paper, Department of Soctiology, The Ohio State University, 2002.

2.	Hango, Darcy William
2.	Marital Disruption and Childhood Accident Propensity: The Role of Aggression and Parental Relationship Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, June 2000 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Accidents; Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Child Health; Divorce; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Injuries Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. EXCERPT: In investigating the effects of divorce/separation and childhood/aggression, we will look to see whether the quality of the mother-child relationship alters the effects. Although there is some evidence for the relevance of parent-child relations for medically attended accidents/injuries in childhood (Rivara 1995; Matheny 1988), the mediating role that it plays in the relationship between divorce/separation and childhood aggression and between divorce/separation and accident/injuries has not been examined. Thus, a final objective of this work is to shed light on the dynamic among parental divorce/separation, quality of the mother-child relationship, childhood aggression, and the occurrence of medically attended accident/injuries among children by considering the role of possible mediating factors.
	Bibliography Citation Hango, Darcy William. "Marital Disruption and Childhood Accident Propensity: The Role of Aggression and Parental Relationship." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, June 2000.

3.	Li, Qi
3.	The Impact of Multigenerational Caregiving on the Health and Wellbeing of U.S. Adults and Their Children Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 2022. Also: http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1650458558092179 Cohort(s): NLSY79, NLSY79 Young Adult Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Caregivers, Adult Children; Depression (see also CESD); Ethnic Differences; Gender Differences; Health/Health Status/SF-12 Scale; Marital Dissolution; Racial Differences; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Well-Being Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Due to shifting demographic trends in the United States, including delayed fertility, longer average life expectancies, and sustained reductions in social welfare programs, multigenerational caregiving has become increasingly prevalent. A growing number of midlife adults now belong to the "sandwich generation" as a result of dual obligations providing simultaneous care to dependent children and aging parents. Despite these recent trends, research on the impact of multigenerational caregiving, particularly as it relates to health and wellbeing, remains limited. To fill this knowledge gap, my dissertation uses six consecutive waves of nationally representative, prospective cohort data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and the corresponding young adult survey (NLSY79-YA) to examine the effects of multigenerational caregiving on various aspects of health and wellbeing among multiple generations of family members. The first empirical chapter investigates the relationship between multigenerational caregiving and physical health among midlife women. Regression results differ substantially by race. Sandwiched caregiving predicts fair/poor self-rated health for Latinx women but not their White or Black counterparts. In the second empirical chapter, I estimate the extent to which multigenerational caregiving influences the probability of marital dissolution and find that this relationship depends on gender and socioeconomic status (SES). Specifically, the likelihood of marital dissolution for sandwiched caregivers decreases as household income increases for men but not women. In the third empirical chapter, I ask if and how parental multigenerational caregiving is associated with psychological functioning among adolescent, young adult, and adult children. Regression results suggest that maternal multigenerational caregiving is negatively associated with depression for adolescents but positively associated with this outcome for adult children. These findings, taken together, illustrate that the potential impact of multigenerational caregiving on the American family is complex and highly dependent on other key social statuses.
	Bibliography Citation Li, Qi. The Impact of Multigenerational Caregiving on the Health and Wellbeing of U.S. Adults and Their Children. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 2022..

4.	Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
4.	Long Reach of the Job: Effects of Parents' Occupational Conditions on Family Patterns and Children's Well-Being Working Paper, Columbus OH: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1995 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Children, Well-Being; Family Circumstances, Changes in; Family Environment; Fathers, Influence; Occupational Investment; Occupational Prestige; Occupational Status; Simultaneity; Wives, Work Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. An examination of the impact of workplace stressors-particularly the extent of self-direction and control, wages, and job hours on workers' intimate marital relationships, parenting activities, and their children's emotional well-being. Data are from women in the National Longitudinal Survey's Youth Cohort born 1958-1965, who were interviewed each year 1979-1988, and information collected in 1988 about their children. Estimated are additive and nonadditive multivariate models predicting outcomes as a function of occupational and family circumstances, both parents' background and educational statuses, and initial maternal resources. Occupational effects vary depending on the resources parents bring to the situation, the total employment configuration of the family, and the overall family environment. Mothers' employment and wages appear to compensate for husbands' occupational difficulties and shortfalls, but have less positive effects when husbands are heavily involved in and relatively successful at their own occupational efforts. Conversely, fathers' extensive time investments in complex occupations have more positive effects when their wives are not employed. These findings suggest that both parents' occupational conditions need to be considered simultaneously to achieve an adequate understanding of their effects. (Copyright 1993, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
	Bibliography Citation Menaghan, Elizabeth G. "Long Reach of the Job: Effects of Parents' Occupational Conditions on Family Patterns and Children's Well-Being." Working Paper, Columbus OH: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1995.

5.	Menaghan, Elizabeth G. Parcel, Toby L.
5.	Measuring Temperament in a Large Cross Sectional Survey: Reliability and Validity for Children of the NLS Youth Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1988. Also: http://www.nlsinfo.org/usersvc/Child-Young-Adult/MenaghanParcelTemperament1988.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Temperament; Data Quality/Consistency; General Assessment; Memory for Location; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Shyness; Temperament Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study investigates the measurement properties of the set of items used to assess the construct of temperament for the children of NLSY mothers in 1986. After briefly describing the nature of the NLSY itself and origins of the survey of children, the authors describe the scaling procedures used to construct measures from the items, report these measures' reliabilities, and describe initial evidence suggesting validity. Three sets of age-specific measures are developed: activity and predictability for infants under a year; positive affect and fearfulness-fussiness for infants under age two; and compliance, shyness, and demanding dependence for children age two through six. As previous research of other maternal ratings of child temperament have shown, these scales are generally correlated as expected with other constructs, including interviewer ratings of the child's interaction; and they are also related to maternal characteristics. The paper concludes with a discussion regarding the advantages of using these measures for study of certain research questions central to the field of child development, as well as limitations inherent in the resource.
	Bibliography Citation Menaghan, Elizabeth G. and Toby L. Parcel. "Measuring Temperament in a Large Cross Sectional Survey: Reliability and Validity for Children of the NLS Youth." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1988.

6.	Merry, Joseph
6.	The Mediocre Performance of U.S. Students on International Education Tests: Are Schools to Blame? M.A. Thesis, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 2012 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY); Cognitive Ability; Cross-national Analysis; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. The majority of international test results indicate a disappointing performance for American students. Various educational reform efforts within the U.S. cite these results as evidence of failing schools and low-quality teachers. Yet scholars are beginning to acknowledge that international test score differences can be the result of factors beyond the control of schools, such as social conditions outside of school. An important challenge for social scientists, therefore, is to understand the degree to which international test scores reflect characteristics of the nation’s school system versus characteristics of the nation’s social conditions. Toward that end, I compare the reading skills of U.S. children with those in Canada, a country that performs substantially better on the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) which is administered to students 15-16 years old. My unique contribution is to compare the reading skills of this cohort of students eleven years earlier with results from the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) when the cohort was just 4-5 years old and had not yet entered school. I find that while the Canadian advantage at ages 15-16 is substantial (.26 standard deviation units), this advantage already existed at ages 4-5, before schools had a chance to matter. I discuss the implications of this finding for rethinking what comparisons on international tests mean for understanding the quality of school systems.
	Bibliography Citation Merry, Joseph. The Mediocre Performance of U.S. Students on International Education Tests: Are Schools to Blame? M.A. Thesis, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 2012.

7.	Muraveva, Anna V.
7.	Understanding Variation in Cohabitation through a Lens of Marital Expectations and Fertility Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 2019 Cohort(s): NLSY97 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Cohabitation; Expectations/Intentions; Fertility Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Dramatic shifts in family formation processes over the last decades of the 20th century in the United States altered the way people think about childbearing outside of marriage. Although the proportion of births to cohabiting couples has increased and childbearing within cohabitation became a commonplace experience in the United States, many still see childbearing primarily as a process within marriage. The present dissertation project seeks to address this controversy by elucidating the linkage between the processes of cohabitation, marriage, and childbearing among contemporary young adults. In addition to fertility behavior, this project focuses on studying fertility intentions as a way of understanding individuals' plans, goals, and ideas about cohabitation. Drawing on lifecourse conceptual framework and data from 13-17th (2009-2015) interview rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97), this dissertation examines the role relationship status and, more specifically, cohabitation plays in the formation and realization of short-term fertility intentions. First, I use binary logistic regression models to investigate whether fertility decision-making in the context of cohabitation depends on how marriage fits into cohabitors' plans for the future. Simultaneously studying fertility- and marriage-related dynamics within the context of cohabitation allow gaining better insight into the existing variation in cohabitation with respect to its meaning, function, and place within individuals' lifecourse trajectory as well as contemporary U.S. family landscape. Second, I apply discrete-time survival analyses to explore the role of cohabitation on young adults' actual fertility behavior in a short run. I estimate how likely cohabitors are to realize their short-term intentions comparing to other relationship status groups; I also investigate whether the linkage between cohabitation and fertility varies by the degree of fertility intentions certainty.
	Bibliography Citation Muraveva, Anna V. Understanding Variation in Cohabitation through a Lens of Marital Expectations and Fertility. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 2019.

8.	Parcel, Toby L. Geschwender, Laura Ellen
8.	Explaining Regional Variation in Verbal Facility Among Young Children Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1991 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): General Assessment; Household Composition; Maternal Employment; Mothers, Race; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Regions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Earlier version presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Cincinnati OH, August 1991. Data from the 1986 survey of NLSY mothers' children suggest that southern children aged 3-6 score close to 9 points lower than children in the North Central states on PPVT-R, a standardized test of receptive vocabulary, while children in the Northeast and West score close to children in the North Central states. We argue that regional variation in demographic composition. and in patterns of familial interaction as influenced by regional variations in subculture account for the findings. Descriptive analyses reveal regional differences in maternal characteristics and attitudes, family composition, parental working conditions. and children's home environments, most suggesting Southern disadvantage. Multivariate analyses suggest that regional variation in maternal race and ethnicity; maternal mental ability; maternal background, socialization, and church attendance; maternal working conditions; children's home environments; and child gender account for the differences. We comment on the importance of familial social capital in contributing to regional inequality in cognitive outcomes.
	Bibliography Citation Parcel, Toby L. and Laura Ellen Geschwender. "Explaining Regional Variation in Verbal Facility Among Young Children." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1991.

9.	Parcel, Toby L. Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
9.	Child Home Environment as a Mediating Construct Between SES and Child Outcomes Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 1989. Also: http://www.nlsinfo.org/usersvc/Child-Young-Adult/ParcelMenaghanHOME1989.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Child Development; Children, Home Environment; General Assessment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Parental Influences; Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Math); Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT- Reading); Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT); Socioeconomic Status (SES) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. As part of a larger project predicting child outcomes as a function of mothers' working conditions and child care arrangements, the authors develop measures of children's home environments and investigate their relations with other key variables. Children's home environment is viewed as a critical intervening variable between maternal working conditions and household economic status, on the one hand, and children's social and cognitive child outcomes. Using the NLSY begun in 1979, and its 1986 survey of female respondents' children, measures are developed from subsets of items from Bradley and Caldwell's HOME measures. The authors derive a set of scales that reflect the three major concepts underlying the original measures -- cognitive stimulation, emotional support, and physical environment. Factor-based scales are constructed for two age groups, three to five years (N = 1,391), and 6 years and older (N = 1,218); the three components are also combined to yield an overall measure of the quality of the child's home environment. As expected, higher parental education, better occupational conditions, and more adequate economic resources are associated with better home environments. In turn, better child environments are related to stronger cognitive performance and fewer behavior problems. As with the complete HOME scales, relationships with SES indicators are statistically significant but only moderate in size. The derived measures of home environment provide information that is not captured by structural indicators; the authors view them as important tools for multivariate investigation of the ways in which place in the social structure comes to exert its influence on the development of subsequent generations.
	Bibliography Citation Parcel, Toby L. and Elizabeth G. Menaghan. "Child Home Environment as a Mediating Construct Between SES and Child Outcomes." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 1989.

10.	Parcel, Toby L. Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
10.	Familial Social Capital and Children's Behavior Problems: Differences Between Dual Earner and Male Earner Families Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1991 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Children, Behavioral Development; Children, Home Environment; Family Structure; General Assessment; Household Composition; Intergenerational Patterns/Transmission; Locus of Control (see Rotter Scale); Maternal Employment; Pearlin Mastery Scale; Siblings; Working Conditions Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. We argue that social capital that inheres in the relationships between parents and children should be associated with internalization of social nomms in children. Changes in parental working conditions and family circumstances should affect children's social adjustment because such factors affect the fommation and use of social capital in families. We study variations in children's behavior problems in a sample of 524 6-8 year old children in married couple families in 1988 derived from the National Longitudinal Survey's Youth Cohort Child Mother data 1986 and 1988. We find that higher levels of maternal mastery, and more positive home environments protect children against behavior problems. Analyses of change in behavior problems also suggest that 1986 levels of paternal complexity have protective effects, while the birth of additional siblings and the lowest levels of matemal paid work hours place children at risk. We interpret these findings to suggest specific mechanisms through which family social capital promotes norm transmission across generations.
	Bibliography Citation Parcel, Toby L. and Elizabeth G. Menaghan. "Familial Social Capital and Children's Behavior Problems: Differences Between Dual Earner and Male Earner Families." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1991.

11.	Parcel, Toby L. Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
11.	Gender Differences in Developmental Patterns of Child Behavior Problems: Evidence from the Children of the NLS Youth Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1988 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Child Development; Children, Behavioral Development; Gender Differences; General Assessment; Marital Disruption Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This paper examines age by gender interactions in patterns of behavioral problems for 4-15 year old children of the NLSY mothers. The authors derive reliable and valid measures of behavioral problems at three levels of generality: narrow band groupings, wide band groupings, and an overall measure. Looking at the stressor of divorce, it was found that differences in behavior problems by mothers' marital status are greatest among preschool boys and diminish with age, while among girls, differences by maternal marital status are small during the preschool years but increase at later ages. The authors discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using data from large surveys to test hypotheses relevant to child development.
	Bibliography Citation Parcel, Toby L. and Elizabeth G. Menaghan. "Gender Differences in Developmental Patterns of Child Behavior Problems: Evidence from the Children of the NLS Youth." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1988.

12.	Parcel, Toby L. Menaghan, Elizabeth G.
12.	Measuring Behavioral Problems in a Large Cross Sectional Survey: Reliability and Validity for Children of the NLS Youth Working Paper, Columbus OH: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, September 1988. Also: http://www.nlsinfo.org/usersvc/Child-Young-Adult/ParcelMenaghanBPI1988.pdf Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Data Quality/Consistency; General Assessment; Methods/Methodology; Scale Construction Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Many developmental psychologists have studied the patterning of child behavior with samples of fewer than 200 children. Studies reporting findings from samples of 30 to 60 are not uncommon. Although replication of findings contributes some evidence for external validity, these investigations cannot entirely overcome limitations inherent in small samples. Until recently large data sets were rarely available. By the autumn of 1987 new resource with which to study child development became available. This resource is a survey of the 5,876 children of mothers from the National Longitudinal Survey's Youth Cohort, where the survey of the children contains a number of age appropriate measures of cognitive and social development. While some child outcome measures were included in the survey, time restrictions in a cross-sectional survey format precluded that possibility for other measures. It cannot be assumed that subsets of scales have identical measurement properties to those of the original measures. This study reports the first investigation of the measurement properties of one of these measures, a subset of items from the Child Behavior Checklist developed by Thomas Achenbach (1978). After describing the nature of the Youth Cohort itself and origins of the survey of children, the study describes the scaling procedures used to construct measures from the items, reports these measures' reliabilities, and describes initial evidence suggesting validity. The conclusion discusses the advantages of using these measures for study of certain research questions central to the field of child development, as well as limitations inherent in the resource.
	Bibliography Citation Parcel, Toby L. and Elizabeth G. Menaghan. "Measuring Behavioral Problems in a Large Cross Sectional Survey: Reliability and Validity for Children of the NLS Youth." Working Paper, Columbus OH: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, September 1988.

13.	Rogers, Stacy J. Menaghan, Elizabeth G. Parcel, Toby L.
13.	Effects of Maternal Working Conditions and Mastery on Child Behavior Problems: Studying the Intergenerational Transmission of Social Control Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1990 Cohort(s): Children of the NLSY79, NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Behavior Problems Index (BPI); Behavioral Problems; Child Development; Children; Children, Behavioral Development; Control; General Assessment; Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME); Locus of Control (see Rotter Scale); Maternal Employment; Mothers; Pearlin Mastery Scale; Rotter Scale (see Locus of Control) Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher.
	Bibliography Citation Rogers, Stacy J., Elizabeth G. Menaghan and Toby L. Parcel. "Effects of Maternal Working Conditions and Mastery on Child Behavior Problems: Studying the Intergenerational Transmission of Social Control." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 1990.

14.	Yamokoski, Alexis
14.	Wealth Inequality : Effects Of Gender, Marital Status, and Parenthood on Asset Accumulation Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2007. Also: http://www.ohiolink.edu.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/etd/send-pdf.cgi/Yamokoski%20Alexis.pdf?acc%5Fnum=osu1180542629 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University Keyword(s): Adolescent Fertility; Disadvantaged, Economically; Divorce; Economic Well-Being; Economics of Gender; Gender Differences; Income Distribution; Marriage; Parents, Single; Wealth Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Title from first page of PDF file Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2007. Since the late 1970s, researchers find that an increasingly large percentage of the economically disadvantaged are women, a fact contributing to a severe gender gap in income attainment. Most research on poverty and gender inequality focuses on salaries and wages as the primary proxy for evaluating economic well-being. However, earned income fluctuates greatly and may not provide an accurate picture of the economic welfare of an individual over time. In contrast, wealth -- understood as the value of person's assets less their debts -- captures long-term economic security. I broaden current research on gender and family status inequalities by using wealth as a measure of economic welfare. My research explores the joint effects of gender, marital status, and parenthood on net worth of economic assets and portfolio behavior in order to understand whether in the United States the feminization of the disadvantaged and the pauperization of motherhood extend to wealth. Further, to gain greater insight into the parental gap in wealth inequality, I focus on the timing of fertility behavior, specifically examining the effects of teen parenthood, adult parenthood, and childlessness on adult wealth for young baby boomers, born between 1957 and 1964. My analyses are based on the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth between 1979 and 2000. I find that young baby boomers' marital status and parental status are very strong predictors of adult wealth. Overall, the discovered patterns suggest that married couples have much greater wealth accumulation than single adults. I find evidence of a minimal to moderate gender gap in wealth accumulation for single adults. Moreover, when I control for parenthood, I find strong evidence of a family gap in net worth and portfolio behavior for single men and women. Single mothers and fathers are economically disadvantaged in comparison to adults without children, with single mothers suffering the most severe economic penalties. In addition, young baby boomers that had a child during their teenage years experience great financial burdens, which in turn lead to large disadvantages in wealth accumulation, reflecting a strong parental gap between teen parents, adult parents, and those who never had a child.
	Bibliography Citation Yamokoski, Alexis. Wealth Inequality : Effects Of Gender, Marital Status, and Parenthood on Asset Accumulation. Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2007..

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