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Author: Solberg, Eric J.

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1.	Laughlin, Teresa Laine Clarke Solberg, Eric J.
1.	The Gender Pay Gap, Fringe Benefits, and Occupational Crowding Working Paper, California State University - Fullerton, April 1994 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Author Keyword(s): Benefits, Fringe; Discrimination, Employer; Wage Gap; Wage Rates Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. Canonical correlation analysis is used to construct an index of total compensation for work that includes measures of the wage rate and fringe benefits using the 1991 NLSY. Earnings equations are estimated for seven occupations using both the logarithm of the wage rate and the index of total compensation. The results indicate that the pay gap is much smaller when the index of total compensation is used. An estimated gender coefficient is statistically significant for the traditional earnings equation in all occupations except for the most female dominated occupation. However, when the index is used as the dependent variable, the gender coefficient is statistically significant in only one occupation which contains relatively heterogeneous jobs. Regressions by occupation for male and females are used to test the equality of structures between models separated by gender, and the gap is decomposed into a part due to differences in traits and a residual part The results are consistent with a hypothesis that occupational assignment is the primary determinant of the pay gap, and this is consistent with the "crowding" explanation of the gender gap. The preponderance of evidence is against the employer "taste" discrimination explanation of the pay gap.
	Bibliography Citation Laughlin, Teresa Laine Clarke and Eric J. Solberg. "The Gender Pay Gap, Fringe Benefits, and Occupational Crowding." Working Paper, California State University - Fullerton, April 1994.

2.	Solberg, Eric J.
2.	Labor Force Participation Decision of Females: A Comparison between Younger and Older Cohorts Mimeo, Department of Economics, California State University, Fullerton, 1992 Cohort(s): Mature Women, Young Women Publisher: Department of Economics, California State University, Fullerton Keyword(s): Children; Family Resources; Marital Status; Sex Roles Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines the determinants of labor force participation (LFP) of women by focusing on the changing role of marital status and attitudes about women working. The results display an important structural shift in the LFP of women which occurred between 1967 and 1973, an indication that older women enter the labor force more rapidly at lower wages than younger women. In addition, the results indicate that older generation women are more influenced by marital status and attitudes; however, both generations share a responsiveness to the presence of young children.
	Bibliography Citation Solberg, Eric J. "Labor Force Participation Decision of Females: A Comparison between Younger and Older Cohorts." Mimeo, Department of Economics, California State University, Fullerton, 1992.

3.	Solberg, Eric J.
3.	Occupational Assignment and Choice of Females: A Comparison between Younger and Older Cohorts Mimeo, Department of Economics, California State University, Fullerton, 1992 Cohort(s): Mature Women, Young Women Publisher: Department of Economics, California State University, Fullerton Keyword(s): Blue-Collar Jobs; Discrimination, Racial/Ethnic; Educational Attainment; Marital Status; Occupational Aspirations; Vocational Education; White Collar Jobs Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. In this study, the author examines patterns of occupational assignment of women by estimating probabilities of such assignments as a function of individual characteristics for different occupational categories: (1) professional/managerial, (2) clerical, (3) skilled blue-collar, and (4) residual. Results showed that education and training were important explanatory variables. Race was almost statistically significant; however, it is unclear if race reflects differences in preferences or racial discrimination in the occupational assignment.
	Bibliography Citation Solberg, Eric J. "Occupational Assignment and Choice of Females: A Comparison between Younger and Older Cohorts." Mimeo, Department of Economics, California State University, Fullerton, 1992.

4.	Solberg, Eric J.
4.	The Gender Pay Gap by Occupation: A Test of the Crowding Hypothesis Contemporary Economic Policy 23,1 (January 2005): 129-148. Also: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1093/cep/byi011/pdf Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: Western Economic Association International Keyword(s): Gender Differences; Occupations; Wages Identified, structural wage equations for seven occupations are estimated to test the crowding hypothesis—that the gender pay gap is due to females being crowded into low-paying occupations—using data drawn from the 1996 wave of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY79). Occupational preferences are used to estimate a logit probability model of occupational assignment to create instruments to control for self-selection. Wage equations are estimated for all workers and for full-time, year-round workers. Identical specifications are estimated for private-sector workers. The results are not consistent with a crowding explanation as the sole source of the gender pay gap unless crowding occurs at less aggregated levels of occupations than those used for this study.
	Bibliography Citation Solberg, Eric J. "The Gender Pay Gap by Occupation: A Test of the Crowding Hypothesis." Contemporary Economic Policy 23,1 (January 2005): 129-148.

5.	Solberg, Eric J.
5.	The Supply of Labor Time of Mature Females Atlantic Economic Journal 9,3 (September 1981): 20-33. Also: http://www.springerlink.com/content/40568m9j22432250/ Cohort(s): Mature Women Publisher: International Atlantic Economic Society Keyword(s): Employment; Life Cycle Research; Marital Dissolution Permission to reprint the abstract has not been received from the publisher. This study examines female supply to the labor force. Increasingly, women will behave more like their male counterparts over time. Most remain on that part of the supply curve which is positively sloped; however, females without a spouse tend to move toward the backward bending segment of the curve.
	Bibliography Citation Solberg, Eric J. "The Supply of Labor Time of Mature Females." Atlantic Economic Journal 9,3 (September 1981): 20-33.

6.	Solberg, Eric J.
6.	Using Occupational Preference in Estimating Market Wage Discrimination: The Case of the Gender Pay Gap The American Journal of Economics and Sociology 58,1 (January 1999): 85-113. Also: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1536-7150.1999.tb03287.x/abstract Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Inc. Keyword(s): Discrimination; Gender; Occupational Choice; Wage Gap Past occupational preference is used to estimate the gender pay gap. The use of predetermined variables in a reduced-form wage equation avoids the bias caused by using variables that are correlated with the random error. Using a gender coefficient, the potential discriminatory gap is about 11.5 percent when past occupational preference is included. Decomposition yields an estimate of 10.5 percent when past occupational preference is included. In both cases, the discriminatory gap is close to that obtained when actual occupation is included. This suggests public policy directed toward reducing hiring discrimination by gender might be misdirected. (ABI/Inform)
	Bibliography Citation Solberg, Eric J. "Using Occupational Preference in Estimating Market Wage Discrimination: The Case of the Gender Pay Gap." The American Journal of Economics and Sociology 58,1 (January 1999): 85-113.

7.	Solberg, Eric J. Eich, Steven A.
7.	Racial Wage Differentials for Females by Occupation Report, U.S. Department of Labor, 1979 Cohort(s): Mature Women, Older Men Publisher: U.S. Department of Labor Keyword(s): Discrimination, Racial/Ethnic; Discrimination, Sex; Earnings; Occupational Attainment; Racial Differences; Wages, Women This paper investigates the presence of wage discrimination by race for females. The empirical model is similar to that applied by Johnson (1978) who restricted his data to males in the labor force. A major difference between the Johnson application and this paper is the choice of industrial classification. The present study divides observations into professional and managerial, clerical, manufacturing and construction, or a residual class of industry occupational categories. The data were drawn from the NLS of Older Men and Mature Women. The results provide evidence of reserve wage advantages by race for females after controlling for differences in human capital acquisitions by an analysis of covariance wage rate specifications.
	Bibliography Citation Solberg, Eric J. and Steven A. Eich. "Racial Wage Differentials for Females by Occupation." Report, U.S. Department of Labor, 1979.

8.	Solberg, Eric J. Laughlin, Teresa Laine Clarke
8.	The Gender Pay Gap, Fringe Benefits, and Occupational Crowding Industrial and Labor Relations Review 48,4 (July 1995): 692-708. Also: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2524351 Cohort(s): NLSY79 Publisher: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University Keyword(s): Demography; Economics of Gender; Human Capital; Labor Market Demographics; Schooling; Skills; Training; Training, On-the-Job; Wage Differentials; Wage Levels Using data from the 1991 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, the authors estimate earnings equations for each of seven occupational categories and the aggregate sample. When fringe benefits are excluded from the compensation measure, a gender coefficient is statistically significant (that is, women are found to have received significantly lower compensation than men) within six of the seven occupational categories, the exception being the most female-dominated category. When an index of compensation that includes fringe benefits is used, however, a gender coefficient is significant in only one category, which contains relatively heterogeneous jobs. Gender-specific regressions are used to estimate what part of the earnings gap between men and women is due to differences in traits. The results indicate that occupational assignment is the primary determinant of the pay gap, a result that is consistent with a 'crowding' explanation of that gap.
	Bibliography Citation Solberg, Eric J. and Teresa Laine Clarke Laughlin. "The Gender Pay Gap, Fringe Benefits, and Occupational Crowding." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 48,4 (July 1995): 692-708.

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